James' Info Matrix

Welcome Everyone!!!

2012-01-12T08:11:00.000-08:00

WELCOME EVERYONE!!! Thanks so much for visiting my blog…
I hope you enjoy reading whatever I have posted in my blog. Basically, if you want to see what articles I have written, feel free to look at the side column and do any one of the following:

1) Under ‘Topics’, click on a topic you are interested in

2) Under ‘List of Articles’, click on the link highlighted in yellow which will lead you to my sitemap page

I will, of course, be posting articles from time to time, so do visit this site often to read up on new and interesting things as well as to obtain more knowledge. Do invite others to my blog too, because EVERYONE’S WELCOMED!!!

Should you have any queries, comments or suggestions related to my articles, feel free to send them through my blog or email them to me at my email address written in the side column. COMMENTS ALWAYS WELCOMED!!!

*Just a little note to my dear faithful and interested readers:
Due to time constraints and other commitments, I may not be posting anything new until most probably the end of this year (2012). Hence, I would like to extend my sincere apologies for any disappointments caused. In the meantime, feel free to view everything else that I've posted before this in my website :)

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Latest articles:
"Away with the British!" - the Quit India Movement
Murder in Cold Blood - the Execution of Tsar Nicholas II and the Romanov Family
Of Traditional Culture and Christ - A Personal Christian Perspective
Bringing Fantasy to Reality - Cosplay (コスプレ)

Upcoming articles:
History of Chess
Assassination of Rajiv Gandhi
Christianity in China (Qing Dynasty) - China Inland Mission

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Sitemap

2012-01-10T02:37:00.000-08:00

Lost your way??? Don't know what to look at or where to go to on my site??? Perhaps this sitemap may help you to look for anything that you may be interested in on this blog/website.

Banknotes & Currencies
Contemporary Banknotes of China

Contemporary Banknotes of India
Contemporary Banknotes of Japan

Contemporary Banknotes of South Korea

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Chinese Culture
Chang Er, Princess of the Moon
Dragon Boat Festival (端午节)
Mid-Autumn Festival (中秋节)
Qu Yuan, the Poet in the People’s Hearts
Of Traditional Culture and Christ – A Personal Christian Perspective
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Christianity (For Christians & non-Christians)
An End-Time Article - "A Sister Went to Hell and Saw Pope John Paul II and Michael Jackson in Hell
Does God Exist? An Interesting Conversation

Of Traditional Culture and Christ – A Personal Christian Perspective

On the Last Day...10 Things God Will Ask You
The Beauty of John 3:16
The Greatest Sacrifice of Love
What is Christmas All About?
When You Are Discouraged......
When You Need Protection......
Who Exactly is the Lord Jesus Christ?
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Christianity in China
The Luminous Religion of the Tang Dynasty（唐朝的景教)
The Gospel Flows Through the Yuan Dynasty
Christianity with a Chinese Face – Late Ming & Early Qing Dynasties
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Christianity in India
The Apostle to India
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Christianity in Japan
The Light of the Flying Bird (飛鳥の光)
When the Cross Meets the Samurais
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Christianity in Korea
When the Gospel Awakens the Morning Calm

Christianity in Medieval Islamic Empires

The Great Christian Physician of Islam’s Golden Age
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European History
Murder in Cold Blood – the Execution of Tsar Nicholas II and the Romanov Family
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Fiction & Literature

The Greatest Sleuth of All Time – Sherlock Holmes

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Gandhi and India's Independence

“Away with the British!” – the Quit India Movement

The Salt March - the March towards Independence
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General Knowledge
The Legendary Olympics
Modern Olympics
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Japanese Culture
Hanami – the Sakura Festival (花見)
Hinamatsuri – Girls’ Day (雛祭り)

Tango no Sekku – Boys’ Day (端午の節句)

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Manga & Anime

Bringing Fantasy to Reality – Cosplay (コスプレ)

History of Anime (アニメの歴史)
History of Manga (漫画の歴史)
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Modern China
Contemporary Banknotes of China
When a 'Chinese God' Died - Mao Zedong and the Cultural Revolution
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Modern India
Contemporary Banknotes of India

Death in the Garden – The Assassination of Indira Gandhi
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Modern Japan

Contemporary Banknotes of Japan

Modern Korea

Contemporary Banknotes of South Korea

Pre-modern / Imperial India

Taj Mahal - The Majestic Crown of All India

Pre-modern Japan
Lady Murasaki Shikibu (紫式部)
The Tale of Genji (源氏物語)

ENJOY!!! I'll be posting new articles from time to time, so feel free to visit my blog anytime!

Who Exactly is the Lord Jesus Christ?

2011-11-08T20:54:00.000-08:00

WHO IS JESUS?

HAVE YOU EVER HEARD OF JESUS?

HE IS JESUS!

WHO IS HE?

FIND OUT MORE!!!

IN CHEMISTRY, HE TURNED WATER TO WINE

IN BIOLOGY, HE WAS BORN WITHOUT THE NORMAL CONCEPTION

IN PHYSICS, HE DISPROVED THE LAW OF GRAVITY WHEN HE ASCENDED INTO HEAVEN

IN ECONOMICS, HE DISPROVED THE LAW OF DIMINISHING RETURNS BY FEEDING 5000 MEN WITH TWO FISHES AND FIVE LOAVES OF BREAD

IN MEDICINE, HE CURED THE SICK AND THE BLIND WITHOUT ADMINISTERING A SINGLE DOSE OF DRUGS

IN HISTORY, HE IS THE BEGINNING AND THE END

IN POLITICS, HE SHALL BE CALLED WONDERFUL COUNSELOR, PRINCE OF PEACE

IN RELIGION, HE SAID THAT NO ONE COMES TO GOD THE FATHER EXCEPT THROUGH HIM

SO, WHO IS HE?

HE IS JESUS!

JOIN ME AND LET'S CELEBRATE HIM

FOR HE IS WORTHY

THE EYES BEHOLDING THIS MESSAGE SHALL NOT BEHOLD EVIL

THE MOUTH SAYING "AMEN" TO THIS PRAYER SHALL SMILE FOREVER

REMAIN IN THE LORD AND SEEK HIS FACE ALWAYS. AMEN!

IN THE LORD, I FOUND EVERYTHING!

THE GREATEST MAN IN HISTORY!

Jesus had no servants, yet they called Him Master...

Had no degree, yet they called Him Teacher...

Had no medicines, yet they called Him Healer...

Had no army, yet kings feared Him...

He won no military battles, yet He conquered the world!

He committed no crime, yet they crucified and killed Him!

He was buried in a tomb, yet He is alive today!

REMEMBER ALWAYS.........

LORD JESUS LOVES YOU!!!

The Greatest Sacrifice of Love

2011-11-07T07:04:00.000-08:00

Hey everyone! I have a beautiful and touching story here that I want to share with all of you. Why don't you take your time to read through it and think about it yourself? Well, just read it to the end, even if you think that it may be irrelevant to you. Enjoy!

There was once a pastor of a church living in a small town. One Easter Sunday morning, he came to the church carrying a rusty, bent, old bird cage, and set it in front of everyone else in the church. Eyebrows were raised and, as if in response, the pastor began to speak, "I was walking through town yesterday when I saw a young boy coming towards me swinging this bird cage. On the bottom of the cage were three little wild birds, shivering with cold and fright. I stopped the boy and asked,

"'What do you have there, little boy?'

"'Just some old birds,' came the reply.

"'What are you going to do with them?' I asked.

"'Take them home and have fun with them,' he answered. 'I'm going to tease them and pull out their feathers to make them fight. I'm going to have real fun watching them fight and hurt each other. I'm going to have a real good time for myself!'

"'But you'll get tired of those birds sooner or later. What will you do then?'

"'Oh, I have some cats,' said the little boy. 'They like birds. I'll take these birds to my cats and feed them with these birds. My cats will really enjoy a good meal after I'm done with these birds.'

"For a moment, I remained silent in front of that little boy. Then, I said to him, 'How much do you want for those birds, boy?'

"'Huh?! Why, you won't want these birds, sir. They're just plain old field birds. They don't sing and they aren't even pretty!'

"'How much?' I asked him again.

"The boy thought that I was crazy, but he reluctantly said to me, 'Ten dollars?'

"I then reached into my pocket and took out a ten dollar note. I then placed it in the boy's hands and in a flash, the boy was gone.

"After that, I picked up the cage and gently carried it to the end of the pathway where there was a tree and a grassy spot. Setting the cage down, I opened its door and by softly tapping the bars I persuaded the birds out, setting them free.

"Well, that explains the empty bird cage that you now see in front of you. Now, let me tell you this story.

"One day, Jesus and Satan were having a conversation together. Satan had just come from roaming around the world, and he was gloating and boasting. 'Yes, sir! I just caught the world full of people down there. I set traps for them and used baits I knew they couldn't resist! And now I've got them all! Haha!'

"'What are you going to do with them?' Jesus asked.

"Satan replied, 'Oh, I'm going to have fun! I'm going to teach them how to marry and divorce each other, how to hate and abuse each other, how to drink, smoke and curse! I'm going to teach them how to invent guns and bombs and kill each other. I'm really going to have lots and lots of fun!'

"'And what will you do when you get done with them?' Jesus asked.

"'Oh, I'll kill them and get rid of them, since they'll be of no use to me anymore,' Satan glared proudly.

"'How much do you want for them?' Jesus asked.

"'Oh, you won't want those people. They won't do you any good. What use will they be to you? Why, you'll take them and they'll just hate you. They'll spit on you, curse you and kill you. You won't want those people, I tell you!'

"'How much?' Jesus asked again.

"Satan looked at Jesus and laughed, 'All your blood, tears and your life!'

"Jesus said, 'DONE!!!' And He then paid the price."

The pastor then picked up the cage, opened the door and walked away from the congregation.

So think about the story that you've just read. What do you think?

All I can say is this...Jesus loves you and He died for you on the cross. No doubt, we humans are sinners and none of us are perfect. But remember, He cares for all of us, He cares for YOU and He died for YOU so that by His death, you can gain eternal life. Believe in Jesus, accept him into your life and follow Him, and eternal life is promised for you...

"For God so loved the world that He gave His one and only Son, that whoever believes in Him shall not perish but have eternal life. For God did not send His Son into the world to condemn the world, but to save the world through Him."

THE GOSPEL ACCORDING TO APOSTLE JOHN 3: 16 - 17
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"Kerana demikianlah Allah mengasihi isi dunia ini, sehingga dikurniakan-Nya Anak-Nya yang tunggal itu, supaya barangsiapa yang percaya akan Dia jangan binasa, melainkan beroleh hidup yang kekal. Kerana Allah menyuruhkan Anak-Nya ke dalam dunia ini, bukannya sebab hendak menghukumkan dunia ini, melainkan supaya dunia ini diselamatkan oleh-Nya."

INJIL YOHANES 3 : 16 - 17

"神爱世人，甚至将他的独生子赐给他们，叫一切信他的，不至灭亡，反得永生。因为神差他的儿子降世，不是要定世人的罪，乃是要叫世人因他得救。"

约翰福音 3: 16 - 17

"தம் ஒரே மகன் மீது நம்பிக்கை கொள்ளும் எவரும் அழியாமல் நிலைவாழ்வு பெறும் பொருட்டு அந்த மகனையே அளிக்கும் அளவுக்குக் கடவுள் உலகின் மேல் அன்பு கூர்ந்தார். உலகிற்குத் தண்டனைத் தீர்ப்பளிக்க அல்ல, தம் மகன் வழியாக அதை மீட்கவே கடவுள் அவரை உலகிற்கு அனுப்பினார்."

யோவான் நற்செய்தி 3 : 16 - 17

"परमेश्वर को जगत से इतना प्रेम था कि उसने अपने एकमात्र पुत्र को दे दिया, ताकि हर वह आदमी जो उसमें विश्वास रखता है, नष्ट न हो जाये बल्कि उसे अनन्त जीवन मिल जाये।परमेश्वर ने अपने बेटे को जगत में इसलिये नहीं भेजा कि वह दुनिया को अपराधी ठहराये बल्कि उसे इसलिये भेजा कि उसके द्वारा दुनिया का उद्धार हो।"

युहन्ना 3 : 16 - 17

لانه هكذا احب الله العالم حتى بذل ابنه الوحيد لكي لا يهلك كل من يؤمن به بل تكون له الحياة الابدية. لانه لم يرسل الله ابنه الى العالم ليدين العالم بل ليخلّص به العالم.
يوحنا 3 :16-17
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"하 나 님 이 세 상 을 이 처 럼 사 랑 하 사 독 생 자 를 주 셨 으 니 이 는 저 를 믿 는 자 마 다 멸 망 치 않 고 영 생 을 얻 게 하 려 하 심 이 니 라. 하 나 님 이 그 아 들 을 세 상 에 보 내 신 것 은 세 상 을 심 판 하 려 하 심 이 아 니 요 저 로 말 미 암 아 세 상 이 구 원 을 받 게 하 려 하 심 이 라."

요한복음 3 : 16 - 17

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"実に神は、ひとり子をさえ惜しまず与えるほどに、世を愛してくださいました。それは、神の御子を信じる者が、だれ一人滅びず、永遠のいのちを得るためです。神がご自分の御子を世にお遣わしになったのは、世に有罪判決を下すためではありません。救うためです。"
ヨハネの福音書 3 : 16 - 17

"เพราะว่าพระเจ้าทรงรักโลก จนได้ทรงประทานพระบุตรองค์เดียวของพระองค์ที่บังเกิดมา เพื่อผู้ใดที่เชื่อในพระบุตรนั้นจะไม่พินาศ แต่มีชีวิตนิรันดร์ เพราะว่าพระเจ้าไม่ได้ทรงใช้พระบุตรของพระองค์เข้ามาในโลกเพื่อจะพิพากษาโลก แต่เพื่อช่วยโลกให้รอดโดยพระบุตรนั้น"

ยอห์น 3 : 16 - 17

Just know and remember this:

Lord Jesus loves YOU!!!

When You Need Protection......

2011-11-06T20:46:00.000-08:00

When You Are Discouraged......

2011-11-06T07:22:00.000-08:00

What is Christmas All About?

2011-11-06T00:11:00.000-07:00

What is Christmas all about?

What would your answer be if I were to put forward this question to you directly? What would be the first things to cross your mind?

I bet most of you would be thinking of that big, chubby guy in red who lives up in the North Pole and makes his appearance down everyone’s chimney once a year, bringing with him loads and loads of wonderful presents. You know, the guy who comes riding in a sleigh pulled by reindeers, of whom children all over the world try staying up all night (and end up falling asleep) just to catch a glimpse of his white beard or red coat? Or, to put it in a more realistic sense, the bearded guy in red whose likenesses you commonly see pacing around and bringing cheers to people in shopping malls and public squares during the holiday season?

Oh well, if that’s not the case, then perhaps you might have been thinking of a nice, big Christmas tree, well-decorated and brightly-lighted for the occasion with colourful blinking lights, ornaments and strings of all shapes and sizes. Yes, and not to forget the nice, big, shiny star on the very top to give the tree its finishing look. There, Christmas just can’t be complete without it, right?

Or perhaps you might have been thinking of presents instead. Ah yes, what is Christmas without presents? A period of giving, receiving and sharing; a period when everyone feels jolly and happy; a period when everyone looks forward to that big morning when presents of all colours and sizes adorn the bottom of the Christmas tree, waiting to be opened by their addressees. And the look on the children’s faces when they rip open their presents to discover what they have been yearning for all year long! (or when they see something they don’t really fancy…). The joy, the laughter and the merriment of the occasion…what can be better than these?

Well, if these were what you would have thought about if I were to ask you the question above, then you are right! After all, Christmas is about giving, receiving and sharing what we have. It’s a period of happiness, merriment and laughter, when everyone feels the warmth of each other’s company and the joy of seeing a smile on each other’s faces. It’s a time for reunion, a time for caring and a time for forgiving. A time that comes only once a year, of which everyone eagerly looks forward to.

Nevertheless, amidst all the jolliness and merriment of the season, very often do we seem to forget the true story that lies behind and forms the very reason why we celebrate this wonderful holiday. We often tend to think, “Well, Christmas is a season of sharing and forgiving. It’s a season of giving and receiving, where we learn to love, care for and forgive one another. That’s why we celebrate this wonderful day with merriment and joy together!”

Regardless of what you may think Christmas is all about, permit me to just share with you a story that reflects the true meaning of Christmas. Indeed, this wonderful day wouldn’t even come into existence if it wasn’t for this beautiful and meaningful story. Well, here goes!

There was once a great king who ruled a vast kingdom full of riches. He had everything he needed and enjoyed everything he wanted in the luxury of his palace. He had servants as numerous as an army, unendingly attending to his everyday needs, and capable ministers to run the daily affairs of his kingdom. He was at the zenith of power, and all his subjects feared him, for he had the might and resolve to instantly destroy anyone who spoke a word against him.

The king, however, was in love with a humble peasant girl in his country. It was love at first sight, and he knew that he loved this girl very much from the first moment he saw her. His heart was melted by his love for her, but he knew that he could not declare his love for her openly. He wanted her to love him for who he was, and not because of anything that he had.

He knew that as a fearsome king, his position prevented him from winning her love purely. What if he were to bring her into his palace and crown her head with jewels and clothed her in royal robes? Surely she would not resist – no one dared to resist him. But would she love him? Of course she would say she loved him, but would she truly? Or would she live with him in fear, nursing a private grief for the life she had left behind? Would she be happy at his side? How could he know for sure?

He knew that if he were to ride to her humble dwelling in his royal carriage with an armed escort waving bright banners, that too would overwhelm her with fear. He did not want a cringing subject. He wanted a lover, an equal, someone who could see him with an equal standing. He wanted her to forget that he was a king and she a humble peasant. He wanted to let shared love cross the gulf between them, for it is only in love that the unequal can be made equal.

The king, convinced that he could not elevate the girl without crushing her freedom, resolved to descend to her level. He clothed himself as a beggar and approached her cottage with a worn cloak fluttering loose about him. This was not just a disguise – the king took on a totally new identity. He had renounced his throne to declare his love for her and to win hers.

Indeed, the king had made a daring and risky choice. He gambled his throne in order to win the humble peasant’s hand, not knowing how she would actually respond to him. She might have loved him in return or she might have rejected him and sent him away, and he would lose her love forever! But that’s a picture of the choice that the Almighty God gave us, and that, of course, reflects what Christmas is actually all about.

The Almighty God, who sits on His throne in heaven, humbled Himself in order to win our love. Not knowing how we might respond, He willingly gave up His position and riches, and came down to our midst in the form of a baby. He humbled Himself, rendered Himself of no reputation, and came to be born in this world into a poor family, under poverty-stricken circumstances, all to win our love. This is the true story of Christmas: God in a manger, God found in a form that no one could possibly fear.

“And there were shepherds living out in the fields nearby, keeping watch over their flocks at night. An angel of the Lord appeared to them, and the glory of the Lord shone around them, and they were terrified. But the angel said to them, "Do not be afraid. I bring you good news of great joy that will be for all the people. Today in the town of David a Saviour has been born to you; He is Christ the Lord. This will be a sign to you: You will find a baby wrapped in cloths and lying in a manger."

Suddenly a great company of the heavenly host appeared with the angel, praising God and saying,

"Glory to God in the highest, and on earth peace to those on whom His favour rests."

When the angels had left them and gone into heaven, the shepherds said to one another, "Let us go to Bethlehem and see this thing that has happened, which the Lord has told us about."

So they hurried off and found Mary and Joseph, and the baby, who was lying in the manger.”

The Gospel According to Luke 2: 8 - 16

And today, we celebrate Christmas to commemorate the birthday of this wonderful baby – the best Christmas present anyone can ever have, the Lord Jesus Christ!

LORD JESUS CHRIST LOVES YOU!!!

The Beauty of John 3:16

2011-11-05T17:40:00.000-07:00

The winter was harsh, and people were scrambling back home as fast as their legs could carry them, eager to return to the comfort and warmth of their own homes. As snow started to fall slowly and the air turn icy-cold, people gradually left the streets for the cozy warmth of their firesides until the streets became almost deserted without a single soul in sight.

Amidst the quietness of the now heavily snowing outdoors, a little boy stood at a miserable corner of the street, selling newspapers to any good soul who may be willing to make a purchase and spare the boy some income for a living. As time passed, the boy felt the icy-cold air piercing deeper into his body until he could no longer take it anymore.

He looked around and spotted a heavily-clad policeman patrolling the cold streets as part of his duty. He walked up to the policeman and said, “Sir, you wouldn’t happen to know where a poor boy could find a warm place to sleep tonight, would you?” His voice quivered under the chilliness of the winter wind. “You see, I sleep in a box up around the corner there and down the alley, and it’s awfully cold in there for tonight. It sure would be nice to have a warm place to stay,” the little boy continued.

The policeman looked down at the little boy with eyes full of pity and compassion. How could he allow such a little boy to stay in the chilly outdoors in the middle of a harsh winter? He thought to himself for a while and then replied, “You go down the street to that old house and you knock on the door. When they come out the door, you just say ‘John 3:16,’ and they will let you in.”

And so the boy did as he was told. He mustered all the strength that he had left in him, walked down the street and came to the entrance of the house. He walked up the steps and knocked on the door, and an elderly lady answered. He looked up at the lady and said, “John 3:16.” The lady then said, “Come on in, son.”

She welcomed the little boy into her house and brought him to her living room, where she sat him down in a split bottom rocker in front of a great big old fireplace. With a sweet smile on her face, she went off. The boy sat there for a while and thought to himself, “John 3:16…I don’t understand it, but it sure makes a cold boy warm.”

The old lady came back after a while and with a sweet, motherly voice, asked him, “Are you hungry?” The boy looked at her for a while in surprise, then he answered, “Well, just a little. I haven’t eaten in a couple of days, and I guess I could stand a little bit of food.” The lady smiled in return and brought him into the kitchen, where she sat him down to a table full of wonderful food. Surprised at the amount of food laid before him, he ate and ate until he could not eat anymore. Then he thought to himself, “John 3:16...I sure don’t understand it, but it sure makes a hungry boy full.”

After he had eaten to his satisfaction, the old lady took him upstairs to a bathroom, where there was a huge bathtub filled with warm water. The old lady left him with the same sweet smile on her face. He got into the bathtub, sat there and soaked himself for a while. As he soaked, he thought to himself, “John 3:16…I sure don’t understand it, but it sure makes a dirty boy clean. You know, I’ve not had a bath, a real bath, in my whole life. The only bath I ever had was when I stood in front of that big old fire hydrant as they flushed it out.”

The lady returned after a while and dressed him up with fresh new clothes. She then led him to a large, comfortable room, tucked him into a big old feather bed, pulled the covers up around his neck, kissed him goodnight and turned out the lights. As he lay in the darkness and looked out the window at the snow coming down on that cold night, he thought to himself, “John 3:16…I really don’t understand it, but it sure makes a tired boy rested.”

The next morning, the lady came back up and took him down again to the same big table full of food the night before. There, on that same table, lots of food was laid out before him again. After he ate, she took him back to that same big old split bottom rocker in front of the fireplace and picked up a big old Bible.

She sat down in front of him and looked into his young face. “Do you understand John 3:16?” she asked gently. He replied timidly, “No, Ma’am, I don’t. The first time I ever heard it was last night when the policeman told me to use it.” She opened the Bible and turned to John 3:16, then she began to explain to him about Jesus. Right there, in front of that big old fireplace, he gave his heart and life to Jesus. He sat there and thought, “John 3:16…don’t understand it, but it sure makes a lost boy feel safe.”

You know, even many of us today don’t understand it either, how God was willing to send His only Son to die for us, and how Jesus would agree to do such a thing. Many of us don’t understand the agony of the Father and every angel in heaven as they watched Jesus suffer and die. Many of us don’t understand the intense love for all of us that kept Jesus on the cross till the end. Many of us don’t understand, but it sure does make life worth living.

John 3:16:

“For God so loved the world, that he gave His only begotten Son, that whosoever believes in Him should not perish, but have everlasting life.”

On the Last Day...10 Things God Will Ask You

2011-11-04T19:19:00.000-07:00

Of Traditional Culture and Christ – A Personal Christian Perspective

2011-11-03T22:02:00.000-07:00

Growing up as an ethnic Chinese in a multi-racial and multi-religious country such as Malaysia, I have been exposed to the cultures, practices and festivities of most of the world’s major religions, as well as those of three major ethnic groups native to Asia. Eid ul-Fitr and Eid ul-Adha of the Muslims (known as Hari Raya Aidilfitri and Hari Raya Aidiladha respectively to the Malays of Malaysia, Singapore and Brunei), Chinese New Year and Mid-Autumn Festival of the Chinese, Deepavali and Thaipusam of the Hindu Indians, Tamil New Year of the Tamil Indians, Wesak of the Buddhists, Christmas, Good Friday and Easter Sunday (Resurrection Sunday) of the Christians, Vaisakhi of the Sikh Punjabi Indians – none of these are foreign to me anymore.

It is indeed a blessing to be in such a country, where so many ethnic groups and religions thrive side by side in harmony and mutual understanding. For Malaysians out there reading this, as well as those of you who have been to Malaysia before, you’d understand that our country is indeed very fortunate to be able to exist in peace and harmony despite our society’s plurality. Just look at some countries of this world and you’d understand what I mean – people of different religions and ethnic backgrounds harbouring enmity and hatred for one another. For those of you out there who have never been to my beautiful country before, you should one day come and see for yourselves the truth behind what I’m saying here.

The multitude of cultures found in Malaysia

Indeed, in such a multi-racial and multi-religious setting, all is not just a bed of roses. People of different cultural upbringings and religious persuasions do clash in thoughts from time to time, so much so that one’s thoughts may sometimes end up offending other parties which result in subtle but sure feelings of uneasiness and dislike for each other’s culture and faith. Christians are no exception, and they can sometimes be one of those who end up offending others with their thoughts and perspectives. Of course, I am writing this as a Malaysian Christian of Chinese ethnicity myself.

In writing this short piece of article, I know that I may be touching on something which may be at times controversial to both Christians and Chinese alike (well, at least in Malaysia). I do not intend to spark any further controversy on this matter, and neither do I intend to argue with anyone as to what is right or wrong in this matter. I’m merely stating what I believe and practise as a Malaysian Chinese Christian who comes from an English and Mandarin-speaking background and who has been brought up in a predominantly Mandarin-speaking Methodist church since childhood.

Just like some of you out there who may be reading this, I was once perplexed by a very simple question: “Is it alright for Christians of Chinese origin to celebrate traditional Chinese festivals such as Chinese New Year and Mid-Autumn Festival?” Different people may have different answers to this, and I’m sure my answer will also be a subject of debate for some of those who may be reading this. Nonetheless, let me state it here: “Absolutely! Why not? Provided certain things are looked into……”

I have spoken to many non-Christians before and I find that there is a common misconception towards Christianity and Christians. Very frequently do I hear them implying that Christianity is a Western religion that is not compatible for Asians. Christianity is associated with the whites, the Europeans and the Americans, and being a Christian in Asia (including here in Malaysia) is tantamount to abandoning your own ethnic’s culture and traditions in favour of Western ways. It is as if becoming a Christian makes you lose your sense of cultural identity and turns you into a more “Westernized” person. Believe it or not, I have had surprised looks from several friends before when they saw sheets of Bible verses printed in Mandarin Chinese in my school file! “The Bible even exists in Mandarin?” they asked.

A Qing Dynasty Chinese Bible dating back to 1817

To a certain extent, I can’t blame them for their ignorance. With due respect to all my fellow Christians especially in Malaysia (Singapore and Brunei as well, who share the same cultural background as us Malaysians), I have to say that it is partially because of the way Christians live out their cultural lives that gives such an impression upon non-Christians. Take my country as an example – in Peninsular Malaysia, the typical Christian is normally (but not always) described by non-Christians as being from an English-speaking background, speaks mainly English and has a poor-to-mediocre command of their ancestral mother tongue, and follows Westernized ways of life. In addition, in the case of Chinese Christians, some may not even celebrate traditional Chinese festivals such as Chinese New Year and Mid-Autumn Festival on the grounds that such things are “against the teachings of the Bible.” In fact, there may also be some who would go as far as saying that any customs of Chinese origin are incompatible with Christianity and therefore should not be practised by anyone who truly claims to profess faith in Christ.

Of course, this is just a generalization and I know that there are many exceptions out there, hence I sincerely apologize if I have offended any one of you by what I wrote above. Please don’t misunderstand me; what I stated above is merely reminiscent of what I hear from non-Christians and even some Christians. And such descriptions are generalized not only to Chinese Christians, for I have also come across similar descriptions being extended to Indian Christians in my home country. Let me take this a step further; in countries such as China, Taiwan, India, Japan and occasionally South Korea, Christians are, to varying degrees, labeled as being “Westernized”, “having forgotten their cultural heritage and ancestral roots,” and so on. In a way, it is understandable why such labels are often used, because the Chinese, Korean, Japanese and Indian cultures are amongst Asia’s oldest and most elaborate cultures, with long histories tracing back to centuries past. Christianity, with its so-called “Westernized” image, is thus seen by non-Christians as a threat to their rich cultures which they are ever so prideful of.

To those who are of the opinion that celebrating traditional Chinese festivals and practising Chinese culture is incompatible with Christian teachings, I do not say that such a stand is wrong. But neither do I have any recognized authority to affirm that it is right, since I’m no clergy, elder, missionary or graduate of any Bible school. All I can say is what Apostle Paul wrote in his letter to the Galatians: “It is fine to be zealous, provided the purpose is good, and to be so always…” (Galatians 4:18).

If that’s the case, then is it actually wrong for Chinese Christians to follow traditional Chinese customs and observe Chinese festivals? Let me give you my personal insight about it. Please note, however, that what I will discuss after this focuses more on Chinese culture, so my apologies in advance for not touching much on the cultures of other civilizations and ethnic groups. Please understand also that what I state here may not be directly applicable to the practices of other cultures, and evaluating whether one should practise a particular custom or not should best be viewed on a case-by-case basis.

To begin with, let us look at something in Christian theology known as the Wesleyan Quadrilateral, credited to the renowned Methodist leader of the late 18^th century, John Wesley (1703 – 1791). The Wesleyan Quadrilateral is a theological concept that suggests that there are four sources with which one forms theological conclusions, or from which one comes to understand God and faith. These sources are:

1. Scripture – the Holy Bible (Old and New Testaments)

2. Tradition – the two millennia history of the Christian Church

3. Reason – rational thinking and sensible interpretation

4. Experience – a Christian’s personal and communal journey in Christ

John Wesley believed that the living core of the Christian faith was revealed in Scripture, illuminated by tradition, vivified in personal experience and confirmed by reason. Nonetheless, Scripture, however, is primary, revealing the Word of God “so far as it is necessary for our salvation.”

John Wesley (1703 - 1791), Anglican clergy, Christian theologian and co-founder of the Methodist movement

Having said these, it is thus of paramount importance that all customs, traditions, practices and cultural elements be examined and evaluated carefully based on Scripture. In order to do so, one must also have a sound understanding of the culture and traditions that are in question. It wouldn’t be fair for someone with merely a shallow understanding of a particular culture to denounce everything of that culture as “demonic”, “superstitious” and “inappropriate for Christians to practise.” At the same time, it is also unreasonable for someone to rubbish as “un-Christian” everything that is not found or specifically encouraged or discouraged in Scripture.

Hence, let us now look at some of the most widely observed Chinese festivals, and see if they are indeed appropriate in one way or another for Christian practice.

Chinese New Year (农历新年)

We will first look at the most significant festival in the Chinese lunar calendar, the Chinese New Year (农历新年, Nónglì Xīnnián). Chinese New Year is, as the name suggests, a festival that celebrates the beginning of a new year according to the Chinese lunar calendar. It is purely a cultural observance that is not in any way attached to a particular religion or sect. Its practices, however, traditionally involves elements of worshipping Buddhist deities, traditional Chinese gods and one’s ancestors. It is also a festival intertwined with, but not intrinsically a part of, superstitious elements such as feng shui (风水, fēng shuǐ) and the Chinese zodiac system (生肖, shēngxiāo).

Do you think Chinese Christians should celebrate it? Well, I would say yes, because it is purely a cultural observance that is celebrated to usher in a new year, just like how we generally observe the regular New Year on January 1 annually. Practices associated with Buddhist, Taoist and ancestral worship, however, are not suitable for Christian practice. Hence, Chinese Christians should not participate in such practices, but I would say that due respect should be given to non-Christian relatives and friends who do practice them, just like how Christians would want their ways of celebrating Chinese New Year to be respected. Superstitious elements as mentioned above should also be ignored, and so should unhealthy habits such as excessive drinking of alcohol and gambling.

Putting all these practices aside, Chinese New Year still yields many positive qualities which are in line with biblical principles. Customs such as the reunion dinner, visiting relatives and friends, the giving of red packets (红包, hóngbāo) and the exchanging of gifts should by all means be continued, as they promote goodwill, respect and togetherness within a family and amongst friends. Using red lanterns with biblically acceptable designs, Chinese couplets (对联, duìlián), bamboo plants and plum blossoms as decorative items are absolutely acceptable and serve to add a more cheerful atmosphere to the festivities. To add a more Christian touch to this auspicious observance, some Chinese-speaking churches have special worship services either on the first day or the day before Chinese New Year. Additionally, Chinese couplets conveying Christian messages of thankfulness, happiness and prosperity written on red paper have commonly been used.

Hongbao (红包, hóngbāo), an integral part of every Chinese New Year celebration

A bone of contention with regards to this festival may be the Chinese mythology of the beast called Nian (年, Nián), which is said to mark the very beginning of this festival. To me, I feel that this mythology should not be the focus of a Chinese Christian’s celebration of the festival, as it is only a myth with no proven evidence of its truth. In fact, in this modern era, hardly anyone, including non-Christians, observes Chinese New Year with respect to the myth anymore. Chinese Christians should instead shift their focus of celebration just like how they would with the regular New Year: thanking the Almighty Lord for the past year and seeking renewal and hope for a whole new year.

Dragon Boat Festival (端午节)

For the second largest observance in the Chinese lunar calendar, the Mid-Autumn Festival, I will leave its discussion to the later part of this article, since the nature of this festival is more complicated and controversial. We will now move on to evaluating the third largest festival in the Chinese calendar, the Dragon Boat Festival (端午节, Duānwǔ Jié), also known as the Rice Dumpling Festival. This festival is celebrated for two reasons. Firstly, it is observed in conjunction with the summer solstice according to Chinese astronomical calculations. Because the sun is the hottest and brightest during the summer solstice, and because masculinity is often associated with the sun and the dragon in Chinese culture, this festival is observed in association with the sun and the dragon as symbols of masculinity. The second, and by far the more commonly cited reason for celebrating the Dragon Boat Festival, is to commemorate the death of Qu Yuan (屈原, Qū Yuán) (340 B.C. – 278 B.C.), a renowned Chinese poet and statesman who committed suicide out of disappointment towards his corrupt home state of Chu (楚, Chǔ) during the Warring States Period (战国时代, Zhànguó Shídài) (475 B.C. – 221 B.C.).

The great Chinese poet Qu Yuan (屈原, Qū Yuán) (340 B.C. – 278 B.C.)

Do you think Chinese Christians should celebrate it? My answer would technically be yes, but practically no. Technically yes, because the primary reason of its observance is to commemorate a loyal statesman who went all out to fight against corruption in his home state. The story behind the observance of this festival is rooted in proven Chinese history and not mythological beliefs. As a matter of fact, this festival can be said to promote values of patriotism and hatred towards corruption, both of which are values upheld by biblical principles. Although the festival is observed somewhat for its symbolism of the sun and dragon as mentioned earlier, this is by far a less significant reason for its observance. Just like many other Chinese festivals and elements of Chinese tradition, “un-Christian” symbolisms are frequently attached to them, and Chinese Christians wishing to celebrate it should thus know how to separate the “un-Christian” symbolisms from what is agreeable biblically.

Nevertheless, in my opinion, it is practically unsuitable for Chinese Christians to celebrate the Dragon Boat Festival because of how it is commonly celebrated. This festival has become so ingrained with the dragon that the mythical creature is now an inseparable part of the festival. Dragon boat races are traditionally held during this festival, and just like its namesake, the dragon comes to mind whenever one thinks about the festival. Christians generally detest the usage of any dragon symbolism not only because it is a mythical creature, but also because of its association with the serpent, the Devil, as written in the Bible verse below:

“The great dragon was hurled down – that ancient serpent called the devil, or Satan, who leads the whole world astray. He was hurled to the earth, and his angels with him.”

Revelation 12:9

Notwithstanding this fact, there are also some arguments put forward by theologians and scholars as to whether the biblical dragon is similar to the Chinese dragon. Some theorize that the Chinese dragon may not be exactly symbolic of the serpent or the Devil, since its origins are somewhat different. There are those who theorize that the Chinese dragon was a misrepresentation of the fearsome saltwater crocodile in ancient times, while others believe that it was a hybrid of the different totemic symbols of the various tribes of ancient China when they were unified. Still others believe that the dragon was a depiction of the dinosaurs based on large dinosaur bones discovered in ancient times.

It is, no doubt, a very touchy issue for one to discuss whether the Chinese dragon is a symbol of good or bad, since the dragon is, up to this very day, revered as a symbol of prosperity, power and prestige in Chinese culture. I do not wish to delve further into this argument, and each is entitled to his or her own opinion. However, I personally do not think that the dragon is, in any way, compatible with Christian beliefs, regardless of its origins or cultural influence. As such, I don’t really think that the Dragon Boat Festival, with its current way of celebrating it, is suitable for Christian observance. Eating of rice dumplings (粽子, zòngzǐ) during the festival, however, is fine and indeed an enjoyable way to unite with family and friends.

Qingming Festival (清明节)

Let us now look at the next most important observance in the Chinese calendar, the Qingming Festival (清明节, Qīngmíng Jié), which, directly translated, literally means “the Festival of Pure Brightness.” The Qingming Festival, which is also widely known in English as the Tomb Sweeping Day, is basically the traditional Chinese All Souls Day, whereby people visit the graves of their deceased forebears to honour and remember them. It is a day when the Chinese customarily sweep the tombs and offer prayers and food offerings to their ancestors.

Do you think Chinese Christians should observe it? Absolutely! The purpose of this observance is to remember one’s deceased ancestors, an act of filial piety which is clearly a very biblical virtue. Its observance by non-Christian Chinese involves offering food, drinks and prayers to ancestors, as well as burning paper money and paper replicas of material goods for use in the ancestor’s afterlife. These practices are undeniably contrary to Christian belief, thus they should not be practised in a Christian context.

Nonetheless, it is a good practice for Christians to visit the tombs of their deceased ancestors to pay their respects and clean the tombs. In this modern era where many people are consumed by the busyness of their lives, it is very easy for one to forget his/her deceased elders and their contributions during life in this world. Having a special day already set aside in Chinese culture for remembering one’s deceased loved ones, Chinese Christians can thus adopt this day for this very purpose, observing it in a way that is in line with Christian beliefs.

Moreover, I believe that it is not right for Chinese Christians to refuse visiting the tombs of their deceased non-Christian relatives on the grounds that such acts are against biblical principles, or simply because the deceased were non-Christians during their lifetime. I feel that such a decision is unbecoming of a Christian who truly follows biblical teachings, as this is tantamount to rejecting one’s own forebears and thus defying the principle of filial piety. It is also a sign of disrespect towards the rest of the family, and it gives a bad impression to the other family members that the Christian rejects his/her own ties of kinship. It is, by all means, the right thing to do biblically and culturally to pay respect to one’s deceased non-Christian relatives by making time to visit their tombs. Practices such as praying with joss sticks, offering food and drinks to the deceased and burning paper money, however, are incompatible with the Christian faith, thus a Christian should have nothing to do with these and should explain to the others why he/she would not follow such practices. A simple bow before the tombstone would suffice to display filial piety and respect.

Winter Solstice Festival (冬至)

Another observance in the Chinese calendar worth noting is the Winter Solstice Festival (冬至, Dōngzhì), which annually falls on or around December 22, hence making it the closest festival to Christmas. The origins of this festival are somewhat blurred, and there is no widely told mythology or historical folklore that is generally associated with its beginnings. Some relate this festival to the yin and yang (阴阳, yīnyáng) concept that expounds on the balance and harmony in the cosmos, while others believe this day to be the day when the sunshine is the weakest and daylight the shortest during winter. In spite of all these, the Winter Solstice Festival has traditionally been a time when family members gather together in the cold of winter to make and eat tangyuan (汤圆, tāngyuán) (balls of glutinous rice) together.

Do you think Chinese Christians should observe it? Why not? This festival, though not as widely observed as all the other Chinese festivals, is nonetheless a cultural observance that has lasted over the centuries. It bears more significance for Chinese communities in countries that experience winter as compared to those in equatorial countries such as Malaysia, Singapore and Brunei. Some Chinese communities customarily observe this festival with temple visits and prayers to their ancestors, while others merely take it as an opportunity to get together with their families. Getting together with one’s family to make and enjoy tangyuan helps to strengthen familial bonds and is thus clearly in agreement with biblical principles. Temple visits and praying to one’s ancestors, however, are incompatible with Christian beliefs.

Speaking from personal experience, the Winter Solstice Festival is hardly observed with much merrymaking, and its observance is normally overshadowed by the grandeur of Christmas which is just a few days after it, both for Christians and non-Christians alike. If it is at all observed by both Christian and non-Christian Chinese families, making and eating tangyuan together is, in most cases, the sole highlight of the particular day of the festival.

Mid-Autumn Festival (中秋节)

Now we come to the last of the Chinese’s major festivals and observances, the Mid-Autumn Festival. Although Mid-Autumn Festival (中秋节, Zhōngqiū Jié) is widely recognized as the second largest festival in the Chinese calendar after Chinese New Year, I’ve decided to leave its discussion for last due to its relatively more complicated and controversial nature from the Christian viewpoint. This, for the most part, stems from the fact that the origins of this festival are closely associated with two different stories, one of which is a mythology of a Chinese goddess. Yes, the legend of Chang’e (嫦娥, Cháng É), the being hailed by the Taoists as the goddess of the moon, is a frequently told story during every Mid-Autumn Festival.

Do you think Chinese Christians should celebrate it? After reading what I just wrote above, the first answer that may come to mind will most probably be a solid “NO.” But that is a simple judgment, a simple way of concluding the matter, and the actual answer may not be as straightforward and clear-cut as that. To say whether this festival is permissible for Christian observance is not an easy judgment to make, and careful consideration has to be given to the nature of the festival and the manner or customs by which it is observed. Having said these, if the festival is celebrated in a biblically acceptable manner and focus is given to what is biblically appropriate in the festival, then by all means, there is nothing wrong with celebrating it.

Nothing wrong with celebrating it!? Am I out of my mind in saying this, some Christians may ask. No, I’m not out of my mind, and my answer remains the same. The Mid-Autumn Festival is a cultural observance just like all the other Chinese festivals. As I’ve mentioned just now, its origins are associated with two different famous stories, one being the legend of the moon goddess, Chang’e, and the other being the story of how the Han Chinese overthrew the Mongol-dominated Yuan Dynasty and established the Ming Dynasty in the 14^th century. It is the former that has become a bone of contention and the basis by which some Chinese Christians denounce the festival as “un-Christian.”

So, is it actually unacceptable to celebrate a seemingly “un-Christian” Chinese festival in a Christian way? In other words, is it still unbecoming of a Chinese Christian to celebrate Mid-Autumn Festival even if its customs and focus have been realigned and adapted along biblical principles? At this point, I would like to share with you an example of how an obviously non-Christian and un-Christian culture was realigned, adapted and transformed into a practice suitable for Christians without compromising on its essence. This example is taken from a series of emails between two pastors which I happened to come across while scavenging for some information online during my free time.

Perhaps some of you may have heard of the traditional Hawaiian dance called the hula dance before. For those of you who may not be aware, the hula dance has its origins in traditional Hawaiian religion and mythology. It was said that the goddess Laka created this dance in order to appease and entertain her sister, Pele, the goddess of fire. For centuries past, the hula dance has thus been used as a form of worship towards the goddess Pele, and the learning of the dance has also been associated with patronage to the goddess Laka.

Because of its strong association with traditional Hawaiian religion, this dance was immediately denounced as an un-Christian culture by the first Christian missionaries who arrived in the 1800s. The Hawaiian natives who embraced Christianity were prohibited from participating in the dance, and local kings and nobilities who became Christians were also pressured by the missionaries to ban it. Nevertheless, the kings and nobilities knew that banning the hula dance was impossible, as it would be tantamount to destroying their own centuries-old cultural heritage. They officially issued bans against the dance, but privately patronized and encouraged it. As such, the hula dance still survives up to this day and has been increasing in popularity, so much so that many contemporary hula festivals are organized annually in Hawaii as well as in various parts of the United States.

Before the turn of the millennium, the hula dance was, for the most part, still viewed as a strongly un-Christian dance that offered worship to the goddess Pele. It was unimaginable for the dance to be practised or even permitted in any church throughout Hawaii at that time. However, if one were to go to any Hawaiian church today, the hula dance is a very normal practice that is even used as part of worship, thus giving rise to the term “hula worship” in churches. There is even a megachurch in California that holds an annual hula festival to celebrate this form of Hawaiian culture! Why this major change?

Hula dance performance in the "Share Da Aloha 2011" in Honolulu, Hawaii. "Share Da Aloha" is an annual Christian hula festival organized by the Saddleback Church in California

The explanation that the pastor wrote is simple: the hula dance has been recreated in such a way so as to express worship to God in a very Christian way. One cannot deny that the origins of this dance are attached to various myths and legends, all of which are in conflict with biblical teachings. One also cannot deny that this dance has been customarily used for worship in traditional Hawaiian religion, and as such has a strong un-Christian element attached to it. But what the churches and missionaries did in recent years was to embrace this form of Hawaiian culture and adapt it in such a way so as to render it compatible with Christian beliefs. Rather than to outrightly reject this vital element of Hawaiian culture, they recreated its moves and actions so as to express worship to God in a very Christian way. Although the hula dance as practised in churches has thus undergone a transformation to become a very Christian dance, it still retains its cultural essence as can be seen from its music, costumes and dance moves.

Indeed, the hula dance itself, as practised traditionally by the Hawaiians, wasn’t un-Christian; its focus was. What the Hawaiian churches and missionaries did was to embrace and accept what the Hawaiians call their own, and to turn its focus to the Almighty God instead. It wasn’t simply about copying verbatim the entire dance and pasting it into a Christian context. It wasn’t about using the same dance in its entirety for Christian worship, and justifying its use by saying that “its un-Christian significance (of Pele worship) is no longer acknowledged or believed, thus there is nothing wrong with using it in church.” Neither was it about creating a whole new dance for Christian use in Hawaii. It was about using what has already been inherently there in Hawaiian culture, adapting and modifying it in such a way so as to bring its focus to God and the Bible, and at the same time retaining the inherent cultural values of the dance. To put it simply, it was to allow the Hawaiians to worship the one true God in their own unique cultural way without compromising on Christian values. Isn’t this wonderful?

So, let us come back to the issue of whether Chinese Christians should celebrate Mid-Autumn Festival or not. If we were to apply what the pastor wrote about the hula dance, then there shouldn’t be anything wrong for Christians to observe this traditional Chinese festival. The festival is an integral part of Chinese culture, and it itself is not un-Christian; it is the focus on the moon goddess, Chang’e, that is un-Christian. Rather than outrightly rejecting this festival, Chinese Christians should embrace it, adapt and recreate it in such a way as to shift its focus to the one true God and His Word, without damaging its cultural essence.

Many Chinese-speaking churches throughout the globe have succeeded beautifully in doing so, including a megachurch in Singapore which I’m aware of. Even my church celebrates it, though it may not be as grand and vibrant as many of these churches, since my church is situated in a relatively rural location with a smaller congregation as compared to many other urban churches. What my church does is to have a gathering and worship service outdoors on the night of the festival, with the singing of praise and worship songs and a short sermon from the pastor. This is followed by various cultural activities such as eating mooncakes, making lanterns and even a calligraphy competition, in which participants render Mandarin Bible verses or Chinese Christian poetry in calligraphic form.

In all these, the cultural essence of the festival is maintained, but its focus is shifted to God and the Bible instead, by means of adapting, modifying and recreating what was originally called “un-Christian” into a uniquely Chinese Christian festival. Many non-Christian relatives and friends of church members also join in the church’s nighttime festivities. Additionally, Mid-Autumn Festival is a time when my church organizes mooncake sales to raise funds for charity and society outreach programmes.

What one of the pastors wrote in his email indeed holds water. To quote him:

“…We also believe that God created all the people on earth and their cultures flow from the way God created them. Therefore, we believe the culture reflects the God given soul of the people. We believe that, if we reject the culture, we reject the soul of the people and therefore, many do not feel that God loves them…”

The Chinese culture in particular certainly possesses a very long history and has been enriched in numerous ways since its existence thousands of years ago. Today, it has become an inseparable part, an element of pride and in fact, the very soul of the Han Chinese race. To rashly denounce it as “un-Christian” and proclaim it unsuitable for Chinese Christian practice without giving it due consideration would thus be uncalled for, as it only gives the impression as if Christianity is intolerant of anything not of Western origin, as if God Himself has rejected the soul of the Chinese people and no longer loves them for who they are. It would indeed be a very regrettable thing for anyone to say or think that one has no choice but to throw away his or her cultural identity to be a member of God’s Kingdom.

Hence, I would like to conclude by saying this: As a Chinese Christian, being a Christian does not mean that one is no longer a Chinese. And being a Chinese does not mean that one cannot be a Christian if he/she wishes to retain his/her own culture, as long as the living Word of God is adhered to at all times. A Chinese is no less of a Chinese when he/she is a Christian, and a Christian has as much claim to Chinese culture as a Buddhist or Taoist does. And I believe that the same basic principle applies to all other ethnicities and their cultures in this world too. Embrace one’s culture proudly and boldly but prudently, and as Christians, use it for the glory of God rather than for worldly or un-Christian purposes. And I’m sure God is pleased when Christians express worship and adoration towards Him using their own unique cultures – cultures which reflect the God-given soul of the people.

“’Everything is permissible’ – but not everything is beneficial. ‘Everything is permissible’ – but not everything is constructive. Nobody should seek his own good, but the good of others…So whether you eat or drink or whatever you do, do it all for the glory of God. Do not cause anyone to stumble…”

1 Corinthians 10: 23-24, 31-32

The Greatest Sleuth of All Time – Sherlock Holmes (Part 1)

2011-01-11T03:02:00.000-08:00

It was a fine autumn morning in the beautiful vicinity of Southsea, where a doctor sat behind his table in a humble medical practice, eagerly waiting for any patients who might come his way in search of medical solutions to their ailments. For days past, hardly anyone had come, leaving his entire practice desolate save for the doctor himself and his assistants. Nonetheless, that autumn morning proved to be different from the mornings before. As he sat in the quietness of his consultation room staring at the scenic view outside, his mind flicked with an instant thought. Without further ado, the doctor picked up a pen and piece of paper, started penning down every detail that poured out from his mind, and in an instant filled the empty piece of paper with the beginnings of a marvelous story – a story that changed his life and the course of world history from that moment onwards……

And indeed, that very same story was later published in the 1887 issue of the magazine Beeton’s Christmas Annual under the renowned title A Study in Scarlet. Such were the humble beginnings of one of the greatest sleuth of all time – Sherlock Holmes.

In every part of the world today, the character known as Sherlock Holmes, commonly depicted with a deerstalker (a checkered cap with brims in the front and back and a pair of ear flaps on each side) together with a cape, has become synonymous with the cool use of deductive reasoning and intelligent application of logic in solving the most perplexing of mysteries and hunting down the most crafty of lawbreakers. From countless motion pictures to various literary spin-offs to even Japanese animations and video games, the reputable sleuth has been a major influence in the global literature and entertainment industry since his inception in 1887. In fact, many principles of deduction and investigation as applied by Sherlock Holmes have even left their stamps in the academic fields of forensic science and medicine.

A Study in Scarlet, the first ever Sherlock Holmes story, published in the 1887 issue of Beeton's Christmas Annual

Despite his widespread fame and influence, Sherlock Holmes is nonetheless a fictional character produced from the creative imaginations and ideas of the renowned and prolific writer Sir Arthur Ignatius Conan Doyle (1859 – 1930). Conan Doyle, born in Edinburgh, Scotland in 1859, graduated in medicine from the University of Edinburgh in 1881, after which he served as a ship physician in voyages to West Africa and the Arctic.

Sir Arthur Ignatius Conan Doyle (1859 - 1930), renowned Scottish physician and writer

Upon returning to England, he began setting up a medical practice in Plymouth in 1882 with a former medical classmate. Nevertheless, problems cropped up in between the both of them and as a result, Conan Doyle left and subsequently established his own practice in Southsea, Portsmouth in June 1882. For Conan Doyle, financial problems were his constant companions; he actually had to write fiction to earn some extra income during his student days. Moreover, he started his independent practice in Southsea with just a mere £10 in his pocket.

Conan Doyle’s stint of medical practice in Southsea proved to be rather unsuccessful; hardly any patients ever came to see him. As a result, his financial burdens did not improve much, and he had to resort to writing fiction once again in order to sustain a living. The lack of patients at his practice gave him ample free time to sit down quietly and write fictional works that eventually became his major source of income.

Sir Arthur Conan Doyle in his younger days served as a ship physician in voyages to West Africa and the Arctic

It was not until one fine day when Conan Doyle came up with an idea of writing a detective story using a character modelled after his former university lecturer Dr Joseph Bell (1837 – 1911). Dr Bell was a famous lecturer at the medical school of the University of Edinburgh who was very popular amongst his students for his remarkable abilities in making diagnoses and deductions from close observation. Dr Bell often proved his abilities to his students by picking up strangers, making close observations and accurately deducing their occupations and recent activities. Dr Bell’s remarkable skills of deductive reasoning subsequently became a major inspiration for the creation of Sherlock Holmes.

Sherlock Holmes explaining to his faithful assistant Dr Watson his deductions from a pipe left behind by a client in The Adventure of the Yellow Face

At a time when crime and mystery literature was not yet well-developed, Conan Doyle made a major breakthrough with his creation of Sherlock Holmes. Though detective stories were already existent at that time since Edgar Allan Poe’s creation of the first ever detective story more than 40 years before, none of them were able to achieve widespread popularity among the masses. The appearance of the first ever Sherlock Holmes story in the 1887 issue of Beeton’s Christmas Annual, a novel entitled A Study in Scarlet, set the standard for crime and mystery fiction and started off the Holmesian fandom that has been growing up to now. This first Sherlock Holmes story earned Conan Doyle £25 (about $125 based on the current exchange rate), which then encouraged him to write his second Sherlock Holmes novel, entitled The Sign of Four, which was published in 1890 in Lippincott’s Monthly Magazine. Since then, he started writing several short stories featuring Sherlock Holmes, which were published in the monthly Strand Magazine.

Sherlock Holmes became an immediate success, in which his popularity rocketed sky-high in just a short period of time. Each month, people would diligently and patiently queue up at newsstands to purchase a copy of the Strand Magazine for a new episode of Sherlock Holmes. The ever-increasing popularity of the great detective brought tremendous monetary rewards for Conan Doyle, until he was finally able to overcome his financial difficulties.

The Strand Magazine, featuring one of Sherlock Holmes' short stories, The Adventure of the Norwood Builder

As time passed, however, Conan Doyle could no longer tolerate the tight deadlines that he had to meet to submit a new Sherlock Holmes short story for each issue of the magazine. He frequently complained that writing detective stories required the concoction of extremely elaborate plots demanding the mental work of novels. He also personally regarded his Sherlock Holmes stories as low-grade achievements and was himself more interested to write historical novels such as The White Company, which he regarded as his finest work. To him, writing detective stories to satisfy public demand was a burden that shifted his attention away from his finer passions.

Finally, in December 1893, Conan Doyle made a firm resolution to end this “burden” once and for all. In the short story The Final Problem, Conan Doyle deliberately had Holmes and his archenemy, Professor Moriarty, plunge to their deaths down the Reichenbach Falls in Switzerland, thus killing off the sensational detective who had captivated the hearts of numerous fans. Conan Doyle was resolute in his decision to kill Holmes – “even if I buried my bank account with him,” as he wrote in his autobiography. He justified his decision by writing in his autobiography, “I have been much blamed for doing that gentleman to death, but I hold that it was not murder, but justifiable homicide in self-defense, since, if I had not killed him, he would certainly have killed me.”

Holmes and his archenemy Professor Moriarty falling to their deaths in the Reichenbach Falls in the short story The Final Problem

His decision to kill off Holmes did not go down well with the masses. A huge public outcry ensued, and Conan Doyle received countless letters from visibly upset readers criticizing his abrupt and shocking decision to “end” the great detective’s life. Many people mourned Holmes’ “death” by wearing black mourning bands to work, and there was purportedly even one letter addressed to Conan Doyle that began with the words, “You brute!”

Despite huge pressure from the public, Conan Doyle remained unyielding in his decision. He committed his time to producing more serious works, particularly historical-themed novels. Nevertheless, despite pouring his heart and soul into writing the historical-themed works that he was more passionate about, none of them were able to capture the attention and garner the favour of the public like how Sherlock Holmes did. None of his non-Holmes literary works were able to match the popularity that the amazing sleuth commanded from his extensive audience.

Conan Doyle never relented from his firm decision until eight years later, when an idea struck him for a novel that involved detective work. He clearly outlined the entire storyline, and all that was left was to put in a character for the story. At that point, he decided that it would be better to use Holmes rather than create a new detective character. Consequently, The Hound of the Baskervilles was published in 1901, whereby the story was set prior to Holmes’ death at the Reichenbach Falls. The novel succeeded in garnering immediate attention and remains one of the finest masterpieces of crime and mystery literature up to this very day.

The Hound of the Baskervilles, one of the greatest Sherlock Holmes masterpieces of all time

Although The Hound of the Baskervilles was able to satisfy public hunger for Holmes stories temporarily, demands for more adventures of the great detective soon escalated to unquenchable levels. In the end, Conan Doyle conceded and brought the great detective back to life in his next short story, entitled The Adventure of the Empty House. In it, it was explained that Holmes did not actually fall to his death at the Reichenbach Falls; only his archenemy, Professor Moriarty did.

Holmes being "politely" confronted by his archenemy Professor Moriarty

After “reviving” Sherlock Holmes, Conan Doyle continued writing one more Holmes novel and many more Holmes short stories. He continued writing Holmes stories until 1927, three years prior to his death. Throughout his lifetime, Conan Doyle produced four novels and 56 short stories featuring the intelligent and seemingly undefeatable detective. Since Conan Doyle’s death in 1930, all of his Sherlock Holmes stories have been translated into more than 50 languages, and the great detective has been featured in countless works of other authors and scriptwriters.

(Continued in next part)

Sir Arthur Conan Doyle shaking hands with his close associate and renowned magician, Harry Houdini (1874 - 1926)

The Greatest Sleuth of All Time – Sherlock Holmes (Part 2)

2011-01-10T16:30:00.000-08:00

(Continued from previous part)

Having said so much about Holmes’ creator, let us now focus our attention on the sensational man of logic and reasoning himself. Sherlock Holmes, undoubtedly one of the most influential figures in the field of crime and investigation, does not have much details of his past life revealed in all of his stories. Even his birthday and age are shrouded in mystery, with estimations placing his birth year in either 1854 or 1861, based on information from several of his stories, namely His Last Bow, A Study in Scarlet and The Adventure of the Gloria Scott.

Holmes reading a blackmail letter delivered to a friend and client in The Adventure of the Gloria Scott

Not much is known about Holmes’ family and ancestry, save the fact that his ancestors were country squires, his grand-uncle was supposedly the prominent French artist Émile Jean-Horace Vernet (1789 – 1863), and his elder brother was Mycroft Holmes. Mycroft is seven years older, and sharper than Sherlock when it comes to observation and deduction. Sherlock himself states in his stories that Mycroft could easily surpass him in solving mysteries and problems, but Mycroft’s lack of drive and energy as compared to Sherlock was a major setback. Mycroft prefers to pass his time in a laidback fashion in the Diogenes Club, which Sherlock describes as “a club for the most un-clubbable men in London.” Occupation wise, Mycroft is a civil servant who holds a very unique and unusual position as a “walking database” for all aspects of government policy, as described in the short story The Adventure of the Bruce-Partington Plans:

“Occasionally he is the British government…the most indispensable man in the country…The conclusions of every department are passed to him, and he is the central exchange, the clearinghouse, which makes out the balance. All other men are specialists, but his specialism is omniscience.”

Sherlock Holmes can be accurately described as more of being a loner with eccentric habits, thus resulting in him having very few friends and close associates. With the exception of his brother Mycroft, Holmes’ closest associate and friend throughout his lifetime is none other than his faithful “sidekick,” Dr John H. Watson. The two met either in 1881 or 1882, after Dr Watson’s return to England following the Second Afghan War. At that time, Holmes was experiencing financial constraints, and had to share his rooms at 221B, Baker Street, with Dr Watson. Dr Watson continues staying with Holmes until sometime before his marriage in 1887, and again after his wife’s death.

Sherlock Holmes and Dr Watson meeting Mycroft Holmes over a case in The Adventure of the Greek Interpreter

Indeed, Dr Watson’s initial impression of Holmes upon their first meeting was not exactly positive. In addition to initially perceiving Holmes as an arrogant being with extremely unusual eccentricities, Dr Watson attempted to assess Holmes’ abilities, and came up with the following list in the novel A Study in Scarlet:

1. Knowledge of Literature – nil

2. Knowledge of Philosophy – nil

3. Knowledge of Astronomy – nil

4. Knowledge of Politics – Feeble

5. Knowledge of Botany – Variable. Well up in belladonna, opium and poisons generally. Knows nothing of practical gardening.

6. Knowledge of Geology – Practical, but limited. Tells at a glance different soils from each other. After walks, has shown me splashes upon his trousers, and told me by their colour and consistence in what part of London he had received them.

7. Knowledge of Chemistry – Profound

8. Knowledge of Anatomy – Accurate, but unsystematic.

9. Knowledge of Sensational Literature – Immense. He appears to know every detail of every horror perpetrated in the century.

10. Plays the violin well.

11. Is an expert singlestick player, boxer and swordsman.

12. Has a good practical knowledge of British law.

Sherlock Holmes and his faithful "sidekick" and assistant Dr John H. Watson

Holmes’ observational and deductive skills are second perhaps to none. In many instances, Holmes is able to surprise his clients by accurately guessing their occupations, backgrounds and recent activities just by carefully observing their appearances and actions and making clever deductions. The great detective often works on the premise of his common quotation:

“When you have eliminated the impossible, whatever remains, however improbable, must be the truth.”

As a result of his magnificently sharp observational and deductive skills, many clients from all walks of life frequently seek his assistance to solve various problems. Indeed, throughout all of his stories, Holmes has been consulted by countless people, ranging from members of Europe’s most powerful monarchs and governments to humble governesses and impoverished pawnbrokers hailing from the lower classes of society. The range of cases that the great detective has been engaged in is undoubtedly great as well, ranging from urgent cases of major political scandals with international repercussions to seemingly petty problems of unhappy love affairs.

The King of Bohemia seeking assistance from the great detective in Holmes' first short story A Scandal in Bohemia

In spite of Holmes’ extraordinary investigative skills, he does not often work for the sake of financial gains, but rather for the passion for the art of investigation and deduction itself. Dr Watson describes this accurately in the short story The Adventure of Black Peter:

“Holmes, however, like all great artists, lived for his art’s sake, and, save in the case of the Duke of Holdernesse, I have seldom known him claim any large reward for his inestimable services. So unworldly was he – or so capricious – that he frequently refused his help to the powerful and wealthy where the problem made no appeal to his sympathies, while he would devote weeks of most intense application to the affairs of some humble client whose case presented those strange and dramatic qualities which appealed to his imagination and challenged his ingenuity.”

Nonetheless, in the cases that he does take up, and in which the client involved is a wealthy aristocrat or influential figure, Holmes will claim any material rewards offered to him, remarkable examples being in the cases of The Adventure of the Beryl Coronet and The Adventure of the Priory School. Besides, Holmes has been known to accept priceless mementos, titles and tokens of acknowledgment from several royal and aristocratic clients such as the King of Bohemia, the Dutch royal family, the French President and Queen Victoria. Although Holmes started off as a man in financial need in his first story A Study in Scarlet, in which he had to share his rooms at 221B Baker Street with Dr Watson, his fame eventually grows along with his fortune obtained from grateful wealthy clients, so much so that many years later, in the short story The Adventure of the Dying Detective, Dr Watson remarks that Holmes is not only able to live alone in his rooms without sharing it with anyone else anymore, but he also has the means of purchasing the whole house himself rather than to continue remitting rentals for his rooms.

Holmes and Dr Watson inspecting the body of the dead German teacher, Heidegger in The Adventure of the Priory School

For his entire life, Holmes is never married, and he never wishes to do so. He does not find any interest whatsoever in women, except for the distinctly interesting cases that they bring to him. To Holmes, women are difficult to fathom and not to be entirely trusted. This view is reflected in a quotation from The Adventure of the Abbey Grange:

“And yet the motives of women are so inscrutable…How can you build on such a quicksand? Their most trivial action may mean volumes, or their most extraordinary conduct may depend upon a hairpin or a curling tongs.”

Holmes also justifies his personal lack of interest in relationships with women in general, and female clients in particular, with the following quotation from The Sign of Four:

“It is of the first importance not to allow your judgement to be biased by personal qualities. A client is to me a mere unit – a factor in a problem. The emotional qualities are antagonistic to clear reasoning. I assure you that the most winning woman I ever knew was hanged for poisoning three little children for their insurance money.”

As a result of such views towards the opposite sex, Dr Watson sometimes comments that Holmes is as cold and inhuman as a calculating machine, who merely accepts input in the form of problems from his clients, and churns out the necessary solutions without a tinge of emotion or interest attached to them.

Elements of eccentricity in Holmes’ lifestyle are reflected in his peculiar and sometimes unhealthy habits regarding his self-care. Whenever he is intensely following a hot trail in the course of his investigations, he permits himself no food and tends to skip meals until he solves the case at hand. Holmes also has the tendency to sink into deep self-absorption especially during times of lack of stimulating cases to pursue. Nevertheless, he often recovers almost instantly and springs into an enthusiastic action mode when an interesting case comes his way.

In times of self-absorption in the absence of interesting cases, Holmes uses cocaine to stimulate his brain, and may occasionally use morphine for the same reason. Dr Watson often views this habit as Holmes’ “only vice” and strongly disapproves it on the grounds that it may affect the detective’s mental health and intellect. He tries to “wean” Holmes off cocaine, but succeeds only temporarily at times, after which Holmes’ addiction for the drug kicks in again, especially in prolonged times of boredom without stimulating cases.

The great sleuth lying "extremely sick" in his bed while talking with Dr Watson in The Adventure of the Dying Detective

Indeed, despite being merely a fictional character of crime and mystery literature, this great detective of detectives and logician of logicians has left a profound imprint and legacy upon many areas of entertainment and the academics. Holmes’ remarkably extraordinary deductive powers in crime scene investigations are often hailed by forensic scientists and crime scene investigators worldwide as being a great source of inspiration for their work. Many principles of questioned document examination as used in forensic science today are ostensibly based on Holmesian methods of trace evidence analysis (study of evidences involving different objects contacting one another e.g. tyre impressions, footprints etc.), ballistics (science of mechanics dealing with projectiles e.g. bullets, rockets etc.) and handwriting analysis. In fact, principles of Holmesian deduction, which involves hypothesis-testing and generating inferences based on careful observation and logical analysis, are commonly utilized in many academic fields today, such as scientific experimentation and investigations, criminology and clinical reasoning in medical practice.

Just like how an extremely popular diva commands a huge fanbase, so too does this renowned detective, despite being fictional. Sherlock Holmes’s popularity has grown so much in magnitude and extent that even Sherlockian societies have been established in many countries in honour of the amazing sleuth. The first ever Sherlockian societies to come into existence were established way back in 1934, namely the Sherlock Holmes Society in London and the Baker Street Irregulars in New York. Up to the time this article is written, these two societies are still known to be active, in which the London-based Sherlock Holmes Society is still known to arrange regular visits to notable sites featured in his stories, such as the Reichenbach Falls in Switzerland.

The Reichenbach Falls in Switzerland - one of the most popular hotspots for Sherlockian fans, being the site where Holmes and Professor Moriarty fell to their deaths in The Final Problem

The unprecedented popularity that Sherlock Holmes has managed to garner over the decades has also warranted the founding of the Sherlock Holmes Museum in the heart of London. Opened in 1990, the museum is situated in Baker Street and bears the number 221B, although being situated between numbers 237 and 241. This was intentionally done with legal permission in order to coincide with Holmes’ famous address, 221B Baker Street.

The Sherlock Holmes Museum in the heart of London - a must-visit for any Sherlockian fan

221B Baker Street was purely a fictional address that Conan Doyle came up with in his stories. In spite of the fact that there really was a Baker Street in London during Conan Doyle’s time, 221B never existed at that time. However, avid fans of Holmes, making belief that he really existed, have been searching for his “actual house” for decades, albeit in total vain.

In the 1930s, street numbers in Baker Street were reallocated, and lots 219 to 229 Baker Street were occupied by a banking organization and building society known as Abbey House (subsequently Abbey National). 221B was commonly thought to exist somewhere in between, thus Abbey House frequently received letters from Sherlock Holmes fans worldwide, some even requesting to “hire” the great detective. Letters received were in such great numbers that Abbey House eventually created a “secretary to Sherlock Holmes” position in its organization to respond to all those letters.

The establishment of the Sherlock Holmes Museum created a long tussle with Abbey House over the legal use of the address 221B Baker Street. In the end, the museum succeeded in obtaining legal rights for its usage, and the museum has been a hotspot for Sherlock Holmes fans from all over the globe up to today. Exhibitions in the museum include detailed reproductions of the rooms Holmes and Dr Watson shared, based on descriptions in the Sherlock Holmes stories, as well as replicas of numerous objects belonging to the great detective and his renowned assistant.

The 221B Baker Street plaque on the former Abbey House headquarters

A postcard depicting an artist's impression of 221B Baker Street

Doubtless to say, the great detective, though merely being a fictional character walking only in the realm of stories, has managed to attain standards of fame and splendour equivalent to, if not better than, any real celebrity who has ever walked the surface of this earth. From inspiring countless spin-offs, movies and TV serials to even Japanese animations such as Detective Conan, Sherlock Holmes has proven himself not only of being able to surpass the wiliness of the wiliest of criminals, but also to transcend the tide of time and the barriers of language to emerge as the most adored and sought after detective of all. His near-unparalleled fame has earned him not only a name in the UK Police Force (HOLMES 2 being the UK Police Force’s information technology system, named after Holmes), but also a posthumous honorary fellowship from the Royal Society of Chemistry normally reserved for Nobel Laureates and distinguished academics only.

Sherlock Holmes and Dr Watson being portrayed by Robert Downey, Jr. and Jude Law respectively in the 2009 motion picture Sherlock Holmes

Statue of Sherlock Holmes in Picardy Place, Edinburgh, the birthplace of Sir Arthur Conan Doyle

The Reality of Heaven, Hell and True Salvation

2010-12-23T02:38:00.000-08:00

To all my readers,

I received this in an email from someone and in all honesty, I felt very disturbed in my heart after reading it. It is also with a heavy heart that I am posting this here, but if it is indeed the truth, then I feel that it deserves a place here so that everyone of you may have a chance to read and know it. It is about someone's experiences seeing the reality of heaven and hell as shown to her by the Lord Jesus Christ himself. Indeed, heaven and hell do exist, but many prefer to deny this fact and sweep it under the carpet as if no such thing had ever existed. Feel free to read this article, and whether to believe it or not, I leave the choice up to you.

Nonetheless, since this article is simply too long for me to post it here, click on the title of the article below that will lead you to a document of the article. The title of this article is as follows:

"A Sister Went to Hell and Saw Pope John Paul II and Michael Jackson in Hell"

Does God Exist? An Interesting Conversation

2010-12-20T19:04:00.000-08:00

There was once an atheist Professor of Philosophy who was speaking to his class on the problem that science had with the Almighty God. He asked one of his new Christian students to stand and asked him a few questions.

Professor:

You are a Christian, aren’t you, son?

Student:

Yes, sir.

Professor:

So, you believe in God?

Student:

Absolutely, sir.

Professor:

Is God good?

Student:

Sure.

Professor:

Is God all-powerful?

Student:

Yes.

Professor:

My brother died of cancer even though he prayed to God to heal him. Most of us would attempt to help others who are ill. But God didn’t. How is this God good then? Hmm?

(Student was silent.)

Professor:

You can’t answer, can you? Let’s start again, son. Is God good?

Student:

Yes.

Professor:

Is Satan good?

Student:

No.

Professor:

Where does Satan come from?

Student:

From…God…

Professor:

That’s right. Tell me son, is there evil in this world?

Student:

Yes.

Professor:

Evil is everywhere, isn’t it? And God did make everything. Correct?

Student:

Yes.

Professor:

So, who created evil?

(Student did not answer.)

Professor:

Is there sickness? Immorality? Hatred? Ugliness? All these terrible things exist in the world, don’t they?

Student:

Yes, sir.

Professor:

So, who created them?

(Student had no answer.)

Professor:

Science says you have five senses you use to identify and observe the world around you. Tell me, son, have you ever seen God?

Student:

No, sir.

Professor:

Tell us if you have ever heard your God?

Student:

No, sir.

Professor:

Have you ever felt your God, tasted your God, smelt your God? Have you ever had any sensory perception of God for that matter?

Student:

No, sir. I’m afraid I haven’t.

Professor:

Yet, you still believe in Him?

Student:

Yes.

Professor:

According to empirical, testable, demonstrable protocol, science says your God doesn’t exist. What do you say to that, son?

Student:

Nothing. I only have my faith.

Professor:

Yes, faith. And that is the problem science has.

(After a moment of silence, the student started.)

Student:

Professor, is there such a thing as heat?

Professor:

Yes.

Student:

And is there such a thing as cold?

Professor:

Yes.

Student:

No, sir. There isn’t.

(The lecture theatre became very quiet with this turn of events.)

Student:

Sir, you can have lots of heat, even more heat, superheat, mega heat, a little heat or no heat. But we don’t have anything called ‘cold.’ We can hit 458 degrees below zero, which is no heat, but we can’t go any further after that.

There is no such thing as ‘cold.’ ‘Cold’ is only a word we use to describe the absence of heat. We cannot measure ‘cold.’

Heat is energy. Cold is not the opposite of heat, sir, but just the mere absence of it.

(There was pin-drop silence in the lecture theatre.)

Student:

What about darkness, professor? Is there such a thing as darkness?

Professor:

Yes. What is night if there isn’t darkness?

Student:

You’re wrong again, sir. ‘Darkness’ is the absence of something. You can have low light, normal light, bright light, flashing light and so on. But if you constantly have no light, you have nothing and that is called ‘darkness,’ isn’t it. In reality, ‘darkness’ doesn’t really exist. If it does, you would be able to make ‘darkness’ darker, wouldn’t you?

Professor:

So, what is the point you are making, young man?

Student:

Sir, my point is that your Philosophical Premise is flawed.

Professor:

Flawed? Can you explain how?

Student:

Sir, you are working on the Premise of Duality. You argue that there is Life and then there is Death, a good God and a bad God. You are viewing the concept of God as something finite, something we can measure.

Sir, science can’t even explain a thought. It uses electricity and magnetism, but has never seen, much less fully understood either one.

To view Death as the opposite of Life is to be ignorant of the fact that Death cannot exist as a substantive thing.

Death is not the opposite of Life, just the absence of it. Now tell me, sir, do you teach your students that they evolved from a monkey?

Professor:

If you are referring to the natural evolutionary process, yes, of course I do.

Student:

Have you ever observed evolution with your own eyes, sir?

(The professor shook his head with a smile, beginning to realize where the argument was going.)

Student:

Since no one has ever observed the process of evolution at work and cannot even prove that this process is an ongoing endeavour, are you not teaching your opinion, sir? Are you not a scientist, but a preacher?

(The class was in an uproar.)

Student:

Is there anyone in the class who has ever seen the Professor’s brain?

(The class broke out into laughter.)

Student:

Is there anyone here who has ever heard the Professor’s brain, felt it, touched it or smelt it?

No one appears to have done so. So, according to the established rules of empirical, testable, demonstrable protocol, science says that you have no brain, sir. With all due respect, sir, how do we then trust your lectures, sir?

(The room was silent. The professor stared at the student, his face confused.)

Professor:

I guess you’ll have to take them on faith, son.

Student:

That is it, sir, exactly! The link between Man and God is faith. That is all that keeps things alive and moving.

Bringing Fantasy to Reality – Cosplay (コスプレ)

2010-08-20T08:12:00.000-07:00

Hello, my dear readers! Let me ask you a question: have you ever taken a stroll down Harajuku (原宿) on a Sunday before? If so, was there ANYTHING in particular there that might have sort of caught your attention more than everything else?

Oh, wait a minute…do you know where on Earth Harajuku is? Have you ever heard of this place before? Well, I’m sure some of you have, though you may not be sure what exactly is so special about this place. Interested to know? Read on to find out!

To the common passer-by or tourist, especially for a non-Japanese, the sight of guys and girls dressed up in elaborate eye-catching costumes and colourful hair in the streets of Harajuku might be something bizarre that they don’t see every day. Stylish butlers, cute maids with little cat ears, sword-wielding samurais, staff-wielding mages, guitar schoolgirls, royalties and aristocrats of Europe’s past, Lolita fashion, and the list goes on – such are what one would commonly see adorning the streets and walkways of Harajuku on a typical weekend. Some think that they are silly, while others think that they reflect creativity at work amongst modern youths.

But for the typical anime/manga fan, they are undoubtedly part and parcel of today’s Japanese popular culture, something inseparable from the world of animes and mangas. And this particular “bizarre” sub-culture of Japan is widely known as “cosplay.”

A common sight in Harajuku, Tokyo on a typical weekend - cosplayers dispersed amongst non-cosplayers in public

It is not only in Harajuku, Tokyo’s cosplay capital, where one gets to see such creativity (or silliness) at work amongst today’s youths. Just pop into any typical anime/manga convention in your locality and you’re almost sure to see people donned in elaborate and colourful costumes with unnatural hair colours wielding intricately designed props while strutting around the convention grounds. If you have never been to one, you might perhaps have seen at least one or two of such people in the train or bus heading for a local anime/manga convention. Or you might have seen some of them walking around anywhere near the venue of an anime/manga convention. Whatever it is, it is extremely rare to see cosplay at work in public places outside Japan, so if you do see cosplayers in public on a typical day, chances are that there is an anime/manga convention going on somewhere nearby.

So, having given you a brief insight of this unique element of modern youth culture, some of you may now be expecting me to explain what exactly does the term “cosplay” mean. Well, if you are an anime/manga fan or are familiar with Japanese popular culture, then this term needs no introduction anymore. Nevertheless, for the benefit of those out there who may still be wondering as to what exactly this term entails, I will give you a brief introduction and definition here.

"Prepare for trouble!" "And make it double!"

Cosplayers portraying Jesse and James of Team Rocket from the hit anime series Pokémon

Cosplay (コスプレ, Kosupure), as the title above suggests, is basically about bringing fantasy into reality. Being a short form for “costume play,” it is a unique form of performance art in which people dress up and act as characters derived mainly from, but not exclusive to, animes, mangas, games, dramas, fantasy movies and comics. Because of its exceptional popularity in certain parts of Japan and in anime/manga conventions, however, cosplay has become somewhat synonymous with dressing up and acting out the roles of characters derived from animes, mangas/comics and Japanese-based games (ACG). As such, it is generally fair to say that every cosplayer is an ACG fan, but not every ACG fan is a cosplayer. Cosplaying is a passion and pastime that only a portion of the ACG fandom indulges in, as it can be very tedious, time-consuming and expensive.

Have you ever seen this popular couple being cosplayed before?

Cosplayers portraying Cloud Strife and Tifa Lockhart of Final Fantasy VII, two of the most popular favourites amongst cosplayers

The origins of this unique form of art and hobby remain vague even up to now. Contrary to popular belief, cosplay may not have been an intrinsically Japanese thing, and even today, there is no shortage of Japanese people who themselves are of the opinion that cosplaying is silly. Nonetheless, because cosplaying has become so popular in Japan, and because this hobby is often associated with ACG-themed characters, it is now often branded as a Japanese product marketed to tourists as an element of the country’s youth sub-culture.

Prior to the advent of cosplay in Japan, this unique form of performance art has been widely popular in America for several decades since the first half of the 20^th century. It was, and is still, a popular practice for fans attending science fiction conventions to come dressed in futuristic apparel, mimicking characters from famous science fiction films. Apparently, the first known people to have started off this trend were Forrest Ackerman (1916 – 2008) and his friend, Myrtle Jones, who startled the 180-odd attendees of the 1939 First World Science Fiction Convention in New York with their futuristic-themed costumes. This aroused much public attention and garnered much delight from the attendees, so much so that in science fiction conventions in the succeeding years, more and more people started to follow in the duo’s footsteps. The non-Japanese trend of cosplaying thus spread like wildfire amongst fans of science fiction throughout the U.S.

Cosplaying based on Western cartoon/comic characters, particularly those from Marvel Comics

Although the art of cosplaying had already hit the shores of Japan by the 1960s, it was not a very popular pastime, and neither did it receive much publicity. The term “cosplay” only came into existence after 1984 when Nobuyuki Takahashi (高橋信之, Takahashi Nobuyuki) (1957 – ) of Studio Hard (スタジオ・ハード, Sutajio Hādo) coined the term by combining the two English words “costume” and “play.” While attending the 1984 Worldcon (World Science Fiction Convention) in Los Angeles, Takahashi was greatly impressed with the costumes that the attendees wore. He subsequently wrote about it in Japanese science fiction magazines, introducing and popularizing the term “cosplay” in the process.

As the popularity of ACG and Japanese popular culture throughout the world shot up dramatically since the late 1980s, so too did cosplay. Cosplaying became an increasingly popular form of performance art and hobby for ACG fans both in Japan and throughout the world. With an ever-increasing number of ACG conventions and events worldwide, cosplaying is increasingly being publicized in the mass media and internet, and the number of ACG fans who venture into it as a pastime also increases by the day.

Cosplayers dressing up as the Vocaloid characters, namely (from left to right) Kagamine Len, Kaito, Hatsune Miku, Kagamine Rin and Meiko

Unlike normal theme dressing like what one wears to a themed party or a special occasion, cosplaying involves a more in-depth involvement into the character being portrayed. The precision to which a cosplayer mimics the details of an ACG character’s costume and props is not the only factor that determines a successful cosplay. For an ACG character to be successfully portrayed, the cosplayer has to also act, behave, walk and talk like the character. Sometimes, the usage of certain taglines, especially Japanese ones, which are frequently uttered by a particular character, adds to the effect of successfully cosplaying the character.

In terms of recreating a particular ACG character’s costume and props, attention must be given to the quality and details. For a successful cosplay, everything must be reproduced to the minutest detail, and materials used must also be suitable for the character and occasion. Depending on the character chosen, reproducing his/her costume and props may vary in difficulty and detail. For example, reproducing the costume of an ACG schoolgirl character (e.g. Yui Hirasawa of K-On! in school uniform) may not be as difficult as reproducing that of an ACG mage character (e.g. Yuna of Final Fantasy X), simply because a mage character’s costume and props would generally involve much more markings and symbols as compared to that of an ordinary schoolgirl character. Additionally, because many ACG characters are portrayed with unnatural hair colours, some cosplayers either resort to dyeing their hair to resemble their characters’ colours or simply wear wigs.

Which do you think is harder - cosplaying as (left) Yui Hirasawa of K-On! or (right) Yuna of Final Fantasy X?

Cosplayers frequently devote a lot of time, money and energy into their endeavours, so much so that cosplaying becomes a passion and pastime for them. They can either create the costumes and props themselves if they have the skills or commission part of or all of the job to professional tailors, craftsmen and artists. A simpler way of cosplaying is to buy readymade costumes and props from shops selling ACG-related merchandise, but cosplayers who take this easy way out are frequently criticized for their laziness and lack of quality. Serious cosplayers normally prefer to invest their own time and energy into completing their costumes with their own hands, as it gives them a sense of satisfaction and achievement upon completion. Because this hobby involves the use of lots of creativity, innovation and attention to detail, it can be hailed as a form of art in its own right, an art that in most cases only ACG fans know how to appreciate.

Good cosplaying requires close attention to costume details, even up to the very last dot and cutting, as seen in this design of the costume worn by Saber of Fate/stay Night

So, where do cosplayers normally choose to show off their hard work to the public? The simplest choice is to do so at any anime/manga/games convention or event, as long as there are no bans on cosplaying. Indeed, such events normally do not ban their attendees from cosplaying, and as far as I am aware of, only the annual Tokyo International Anime Fair (東京国際アニメフェア, Tōkyō Kokusai Anime Fea), which ironically is one of the largest anime events worldwide, has such a ban in effect. Some of these events, especially the larger ones, customarily organize cosplay competitions as part of their programmes. Such competitions may either require team or individual participation, and participants are normally required to perform a short sketch on stage before the public and the panel of judges. Participants are generally judged according to how accurately they imitate an ACG character’s costume and appearance, how they produced their costumes (i.e. purchased, commissioned or self-made), how well they act out the chosen character on stage, how entertaining their sketch is and how effectively they make use of stage space, props and technical equipment for their performance.

Skilled cosplayers showing off the results of their hard work during the 2010 Anime Festival Asia held in Singapore

Participants in the 2008 World Cosplay Summit (世界コスプレサミット, Sekai Kosupure Samitto) held in Nagoya, Japan

Besides anime/manga/games conventions and events, cosplayers may also choose to display their costumes and cosplaying skills in public places. Though being somewhat rare and unusual, there are some cosplayers who choose to wear their costumes in public and go on with their daily business as usual, even on a normal day. Such cosplayers do so out of their pride and love for cosplay. Nevertheless, in some places, particularly in Harajuku as I’ve mentioned earlier, cosplayers gather at specific locations at certain times of the week to flaunt their costumes and cosplaying skills in public.

Characters from the popular bishonen manga-cum-anime series Ouran High School Host Club being cosplayed

Another popular place where one can see cosplay at work is in a cosplay café (コスプレ系飲食店, Kosupure-kei Inshokuten), which is a themed café involving waiters and waitresses cosplaying as anime or manga-like figures. Such cafés normally adhere to a particular theme, the most popular being maid cafés (メイドカフェ, meido kafe) and butler cafés (執事喫茶, shitsuji kissa). As the names suggest, maid cafés typically involve waitresses dressed as French maids, while butler cafés employ waiters smartly dressed as butlers. Customers patronizing such cafés are treated as if they were returning back to their own mansion to be attended to by their team of personal maids and/or butlers. Indeed, customers are addressed politely as either Master (ご主人様, Go-shujin-sama) or Mistress (お嬢様, Ojō-sama). If you ever have the chance to, try entering a maid/butler café and you’ll be welcomed warmly with the greeting “Welcome home, Master, Mistress” (お帰りなさいませ、ご主人様、お嬢様, Okaerinasaimase, go-shujin-sama, ojō-sama). Alternatively, school-themed cosplay cafés are increasingly becoming popular, with such cafés reproducing the environment of a typical Japanese classroom and employing waiters and waitresses dressed in Japanese school uniforms. In such cafés, customers are addressed as Senior (先輩, Senpai) instead of Master and Mistress, giving customers a Japanese school feel reminiscent of that commonly seen in animes and mangas.

“Welcome home, Master, Mistress!” (「お帰りなさいませ、ご主人様、お嬢様」, "Okaerinasaimase, go-shujin-sama, ojō-sama")

Waiters and waitresses in a cosplay café dressed up as butlers and maids, ever ready to "welcome their masters and mistresses back home"

A maid serving her "master" in a typical maid café

No doubt, one can find a whole load of cosplay cafés by just taking a stroll down the streets of Akihabara (秋葉原), Tokyo’s anime capital. Although such uniquely-themed cafés originated from here in the late 1990s, their popularity has spread far and wide to many other parts of Japan and the world. Cosplay cafés may be found in countries and localities where a large anime/manga fanbase exists, and some may even be set up temporarily as part of an anime/manga convention.

Waitresses dressed as maids welcoming customers into their cosplay cafés in the streets of Akihabara, Tokyo

In the eyes of most non-ACG fans, cosplayers may seem like a bunch of fools doing loads of crazy stuff. They find it hard to understand why cosplayers are willing to spend so much time and money designing and producing such complicated costumes just to don them on during an ACG event. Due to the fact that cosplaying is indeed an expensive and “unusual” hobby, it is also not uncommon for some parents to perceive it as a frivolous waste of resources and an act of youth rebellion. Nevertheless, to the cosplayers themselves, as well as to ACG and Japanese pop culture fans, cosplaying is seen as a worthwhile and healthy pursuit. Besides keeping interested youths away from potentially unhealthy activities, cosplaying is seen to help promote one’s artistic creativity, acting skills and self-confidence.

Cosplayers portraying samurai characters from the renowned video game and anime franchise Sengoku Basara (戦国BASARA)

To sum it all up, cosplaying has indeed evolved over the past decades to become one of the most popular pursuits in the world of ACG fandom. The sight of people dressed in elaborate costumes, props and unusual hair colour frequently draws attention, curiosity and sometimes even raised eyebrows from the public, especially amongst those who are unfamiliar with the world of ACG and Japanese pop culture. It is this curiosity that has continuously attracted more ACG fans into the hobby, besides spurring the interest of popular mainstream media to help spread its popularity far and wide. Today, cosplay has undeniably become a worldwide phenomenon and success, and it is here to stay as long as animes, mangas, video games and Japanese pop culture remain popular.

Now, that's not a sight you see everyday! - Former President of Taiwan, Lee Teng-hui (Chinese: 李登辉, Lǐ Dēnghuī) displaying his hobby of cosplaying to the public by dressing up as Heihachi Edajima from the manga series Sakigake!! Otokojuku (魁!!男塾, lit. Charge! Men's Private School)

Murder in Cold Blood – the Execution of Tsar Nicholas II and the Romanov Family (Part 1)

2010-07-18T20:53:00.000-07:00

Amidst a raging revolution that sought to wipe out every last trace of imperial elegance and royal splendour in favour of proletarian victory and socialism, the ill-fated family of Russia’s last tsar took a shower of bullets and waddled in their own blood before breathing their last. At the order of one man, the line of the centuries-old House of Romanov that ruled Russia was abruptly and heartlessly terminated, never again to be revived.

The merciless execution by shooting of Tsar Nicholas II (Николай Александрович Романов, Nikolai Alexandrovich Romanov) (1868 – 1918) and his whole family on the fateful morning of July 17, 1918 met with little grief or pity on the part of the Russian leaders and masses of that time. Having eliminated the last of the Romanovs and thus doing away with the Romanov Dynasty, Russia was bound for a new chapter in its history that would be coloured with turbulence, communism and state capitalism. Nonetheless, before we go into the details of that fateful morning, let me first present you with a brief walkthrough of the events that led up to the Romanovs’ bloody end.

Tsar Nicholas II (Николай Александрович Романов, Nikolai Alexandrovich Romanov) (1868 – 1918), the last Tsar of Russia

During an era when industrial revolutions and technological advancements were sweeping across the European continent at an unprecedented rate, nations across the continent were one by one experiencing radical changes of their own. The masses became more educated and well-informed of their surroundings, political environments and new ideas. They became more aware of any oppression or folly committed by their governments, and were more vocal and sometimes even radical in tackling such official injustice. As a result, the masses started gaining more influence in their nations’ politics, economies and societies at the expense of a gradual erosion of powers of the traditional aristocratic and ruling classes. Some countries thus saw the abolishment of their monarchies and the setting up of new republics, while others retained theirs by limiting royal powers under a constitution.

No doubt, Russia was no exception to this. It, however, took the former route and saw the abolishment of its centuries-old monarchy to pave a new way for a democratic republic and later a communist state. Indeed, the tumultuous era of the Russian Revolution of 1917 and the subsequent Russian Civil War claimed the lives of countless citizens, including those of the country’s last imperial family.

The French Revolution of 1789-1799, which resulted in the abolishment of absolute monarchy in France and largely influenced the Russian Revolution

For the whole century preceding the Russian Revolution of 1917, the ruling House of Romanov (the Russian royal family) had not been very popular with the people. Year by year, resentment towards the monarch grew as people were getting tired and dissatisfied at Tsarist autocracy in which the Tsar (the Emperor of Russia) held absolute power in his hands alone. The Tsarist regime was felt to be oppressive towards the people and counterproductive to the country’s economy, especially when the rest of Europe was flourishing under the Industrial Revolution. Being more exposed to ideas of democracy and revolutionary happenings around Europe at that time, the Russians began to demand for a more democratic government and the establishment of a constitution that protected their basic rights.

The death of Tsar Alexander I (Александр I Павлович, Aleksandr I Pavlovich) (1777 – 1825) in 1825 spelled an increasing disaster for the House of Romanov. Never before in Russian history had the ruling monarch been so estranged from his people. Dissatisfaction towards the Tsarist regime increased, as Tsar Alexander I’s successors were perceived as either oppressive tyrants or weak leaders, both of whom were not thoroughly interested in the welfare of the people. The Tsarist regime was suffering from a lack of capable leadership that appealed to the masses. Revolutionary movements soon blossomed within the country and garnered widespread support from the public.

Such frustration towards the monarch culminated with the assassination of Tsar Alexander II (Александр II Николаевич, Aleksandr II Nikolaevich) (1818 – 1881) in Saint Petersburg (Санкт-Петербург, Sankt-Peterburg) in 1881. When his son, Tsar Alexander III (Александр Александрович Рома́нов, Aleksandr Aleksandrovich Románov) (1845 – 1894) ascended the throne, he took extremely harsh measures to quell all revolutionary movements, a move which further smeared the Tsarist autocracy’s already tarnished image. Bitterness towards the monarch grew by the day and the Tsarist regime was under imminent threat of being displaced due to increasing unpopularity.

Assassination of Tsar Alexander II in Saint Petersburg

Tsar Alexander III (Александр Александрович Рома́нов, Aleksandr Aleksandrovich Románov) (1845 – 1894)

By the time Tsar Nicholas II ascended the throne in 1894, Russia was already in an extremely divided state and unrest was everywhere throughout the country. The monarch was under increasing pressure to either grant constitutional reforms or be forcefully dethroned. Russia’s unexpected defeat at the hands of Japanese forces in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904 to 1905 soon after became a huge source of embarrassment for the Russians, as it was the first time in history that an Asian power was able to surpass a European country militarily. This war, coupled with the weak economic policies and social conditions under Tsar Nicholas II, became major setbacks that proved detrimental to the monarch’s survival.

Japanese painting illustrating the Russo-Japanese War of 1904 to 1905

In response to the ever-growing discontentment towards the monarch, Georgiy Apollonovich Gapon (Гео́ргий Аполло́нович Гапо́н) (1870 – 1906), a Russian Orthodox priest, organized a peaceful procession in Saint Petersburg on January 22, 1905. The aim of the procession was to submit a petition to the Tsar asking for immediate reforms to improve working conditions and wages for the working classes, in addition to putting an end to the Russo-Japanese War that was draining the country’s economy unnecessarily. It was a Sunday, and Father Gapon led a crowd of more than 300,000 people towards the Winter Palace (Зимний дворец, Zimniĭ Dvorets), the Tsar’s official residence. They were carrying religious icons and singing hymns and patriotic songs such as “God Save the Tzar!” (Боже, Царя храни!, Bozhe, Tsarya Khrani!) throughout the procession.

Most unfortunately, the peaceful procession ended up with a fatal outcome that sent the Tsar’s reputation further down the drain. After releasing a few warning shots that failed to disperse the crowds, the soldiers guarding the palace began releasing shots directly at the crowds, killing several people and injuring many others. The exact numbers killed and injured are not known, but it is estimated that around 1000 people were either killed or wounded from the shots or from being trampled in the commotion. At that time, the Tsar was not at the palace, but all the blame for the shooting was heaped upon him. The shooting at the peaceful and patriotic procession that sought nothing other than fair reforms became known as the infamous Bloody Sunday of 1905, and it also earned the Tsar the title “Nicholas the Bloody.” Patience towards the monarch was quickly running out.

Illustration of the infamous Bloody Sunday of 1905 in Saint Petersburg

Tsar Nicholas II knew that the only way to ensure the survival of the monarch and to appease the people was to grant immediate constitutional reforms. This he did with great reluctance, after which he also granted permission for the establishment of Russia’s elected parliamentary body, the State Duma. The Tsar was aware that the existence of the Duma would undermine his grasp of autocratic power, thus he frequently dissolved the Duma to prompt new elections and subsequently reduce its influence.

Besides all these, Tsar Nicholas II was also publicly disliked for another reason – his family’s close association with an Orthodox Christian mystic by the name of Grigori Yefimovich Rasputin (Григорий Ефимович Распутин) (1869 – 1916). Rasputin was a highly controversial Russian Orthodox monk who was hailed as a prophet, psychic and faith healer by some, and a “mad monk” or a bogus priest by others. The Tsar’s wife, Tsarina Alexandra Feodorovna Romanova (Александра Фёдоровна Романова, Aleksandra Fyodorovna Romanova) (1872 – 1918), had frequently consulted Rasputin in order to seek healing for her son and heir apparent to the throne, Tsarevich Alexei Nikolaevich Romanov (Алексе́й Никола́евич Рома́нов) (1904 – 1918), who was suffering from haemophilia (a type of blood disorder resulting in impaired blood clotting and wound healing).

Tsarina Alexandra with her son and heir apparent, Tsarevich Alexei

Nonetheless, Alexei’s healing, which was in fact effective to a great extent, came at a cost. Rasputin was able to gain the trust of the Tsarina and manipulated this to his benefit in controlling the royal family and Russia’s politics. It was said that Rasputin played a role in instigating Russia into participating in the First World War (1914 – 1918) and getting the Tsar to be actively involved in it. While the Tsar was away commanding his troops in the frontline, Rasputin took this opportunity to further deepen his influence over the Tsarina and gain more political influence. Through the Tsarina, he was thus able to control the appointment of government office holders and the execution of government policies. At the same time, he indulged in widespread sexual promiscuity with upper-class women in return for granting political favours, in addition to accepting bribes.

Rasputin soon became a thorn in Tsar Nicholas II’s newly established constitutional government. Many were not happy with the Orthodox monk’s influence over the royal family and the government, for they thought that he had used his magical powers to put the entire family under a spell. Several nobles and politicians thus plotted to kill him, and indeed, they succeeded in 1916. But the damage on the monarch’s reputation was already done, and it was just a matter of time before the Tsar was forced to step down.

Grigori Yefimovich Rasputin (Григорий Ефимович Распутин) (1869 – 1916), more commonly known simply as Rasputin

Russia’s participation in the First World War was the last straw for the citizens of Russia. The effects of the war were indeed ravenous. The war unnecessarily drained Russia of much of its resources and left its general population utterly impoverished, with inflation left uncontrolled and unemployment rates high. As if these were not enough, families were also forced to part with their sons as they were forcefully conscripted for war, never again to return alive. Battle after battle, the country faced defeats and major losses, impacting negatively on the morale of its troops as well. The working classes, which form the bulk of the Russian population, were the hardest hit by the effects of the war, and the Tsarist regime had by this time probably lost even the littlest support it had from the masses.

March 8, 1917 marked the day when Russia’s century-old anger finally reached its absolute limit. Like an explosive volcano, the fury of the people against the Tsar erupted into the streets of Saint Petersburg in what is known as the February Revolution of 1917 (“February” because it occurred on February 23, 1917 according to the Old Style Julian calendar). What was supposed to be a peaceful gathering in conjunction with International Women’s Day later turned out to be a demonstration demanding for “bread and peace,” or in other words, food and an end to the war. Although the demonstration was mainly participated by women workers who left their factories to protest, it started to take on a more violent tone the next day when male workers joined in as well. In the days that followed, the crowds of protesters swelled rapidly in numbers as workers went on major strikes that virtually crippled almost every industry and business establishment. Repeated violent calls were made for the war to be stopped and the monarchy to be abolished.

Crowds participating in the February Revolution of 1917

Crowds marching through the streets of Saint Petersburg (Petrograd) during the February Revolution of 1917

Upon hearing about the growing unrest in the capital city of Saint Petersburg, Tsar Nicholas II issued orders for the military and police forces to curb the protests immediately. For the first few days, the Tsar’s orders were carried out with loyalty, and the soldiers even resorted to releasing fire at the crowds. Most unfortunately for the Tsar, however, their loyalty did not last long. After just a few days trying to stop the demonstrations, about 80,000 soldiers felt sympathy for the people’s cause and decided to switch sides, directly fighting the police in favour of the masses instead.

Even Russian soldiers switched their allegiance during the February Revolution, as they are seen destroying royal portraits in the Winter Palace in this illustration

With these turn of events, Tsar Nicholas II was under heavy pressure from the State Duma and military leaders to step down. Finally, on March 15, 1917, the Tsar abdicated his throne in favour not of his son, Tsarevich Alexei, but of his brother, Grand Duke Michael Alexandrovich (Михаи́л Александрович Рома́нов, Mikhail Aleksandrovich Romanov) (1878 – 1918). Nevertheless, the Grand Duke refused the crown and stated that he would only accept it if the people voted for the continuance of the monarchy and accepted his ascension to the throne. The country was thus without a head of state and political instability quickly ensued.

Leading members of the State Duma took quick action and rose to form a Provisional Government to fill the political vacuum. The Provisional Government under Georgy Yevgenyevich Lvov (Георгий Евгеньевич Львов, Gyeorgiĭ Yevgenʹevich Lʹvov) (1861 – 1925) thus took form and became internationally recognized immediately as the legitimate government of Russia. The government was to reside in power until elections could be held, but was itself rather unstable and often found itself competing against and at times reluctantly cooperating with the more radical Petrograd Soviet (Петроградский совет, Petrogradskiy Sovet), which was an organization of the working classes formed after the February Revolution. Although the two parties often clashed in their political ideologies, they frequently found themselves cooperating with each other for the sake of the people.

(From left) Grand Duke Michael Alexandrovich (Tsar Nicholas II's brother), Prime Minister Georgy Lvov (first leader of the Russian Provisional Government) and Prime Minister Alexander Kerensky (second leader of the Russian Provisional Government)

Amidst all the turmoil and disturbances of the year, one ambitious man saw a golden opportunity to exert his influence and realize his dreams for Russia. He was none other than Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov (Владимир Ильич Ульянов) (1870 – 1924), more commonly known to the world as Lenin (Ленин). Lenin prepared immediately to return from hiding in Switzerland with German help after getting wind of Russia’s political upheavals and chaotic situation. Since the Tsar was now powerless and Russia was in chaos, Lenin knew that the time was right to lead his communist-based party, the Bolsheviks (большевик, Bol’shevik) to victory.

Lenin addressing the crowds

Lenin’s return to Russia was initially welcomed warmly by both political leaders and the people alike, but this did not last long. Rather than uniting the people and bringing an end to the country’s political divide, Lenin became a divisive factor that worsened the nation’s political situation. His sharp criticisms of both the Provisional Government and the Petrograd Soviet earned him much dislike from Russia’s political circles and some segments of the working classes. Nonetheless, his slogans, such as “Peace, land and bread,” was equally effective in winning the hearts of other segments of the Russian society, especially those who were increasingly suffering under the hardships of war.

In the summer of 1917, Lenin carried out several attempts to trigger another major revolution in the hope of overthrowing the Provisional Government to set up a communist regime. All of these failed, and Lenin had to escape temporarily to Finland to escape arrest. Nevertheless, he saw another golden opportunity to spread his ideologies and influence when the Prime Minister of the Provisional Government at that time, Alexander Fyodorovich Kerensky (Алекса́ндр Фёдорович Ке́ренский, Aleksándr Fëdorovich Kérenskiĭ) (1881 – 1970), sought military help from the Bolsheviks to stabilize his government. Lenin took this opportunity to garner more widespread support and gather military strength by means of weapons provided by Kerensky. Thus, the stage was set for yet another more major and successful revolution.

Portrait of Lenin addressing the crowds in a public rally

With the passing of time, Lenin felt that the need to overthrow the Provisional Government and subsequently establish a communist regime was becoming more pertinent. He was by then more confident of the Bolsheviks’ influence and military strength, and began to carefully plan a coup d’état. On October 23 that year, he held a meeting with the Bolsheviks’ top leadership, in which he tirelessly explained his rationale for staging the coup d’état as soon as possible in order to establish communist rule. He was able to convince 10 out of 12 members of the top leadership of his plans, and a date was subsequently set for the next revolution to take place.

November 6 was chosen as the date on which the coup d’état, later known as the October Revolution of 1917, would take place. (It was known as the October Revolution because it occurred on October 24 according to the Old Style Julian Calendar.) Elaborate preparations were made, and on that day itself Bolshevik soldiers stationed themselves at strategic locations around the capital city of Saint Petersburg. Operations to take over government buildings throughout the capital went on smoothly with very minimal resistance, as most of the guards assigned to protect them had fled after hearing about the revolutionary plot. The few who remained were disarmed peacefully. Not a single shot of bullet was released during the entire revolution.

Bolshevik (communist) soldiers making preparations for the October Revolution of 1917

By the morning of October 25, all government buildings fell under Bolshevik control except the Winter Palace, which was the seat of the Provisional Government where Prime Minister Kerensky and his ministers administrated the country from. That morning, Kerensky fled the palace in a car to seek external assistance and re-gather troops in order to retake the capital from the Bolsheviks. He never succeeded, and spent the rest of his life in exile outside Russia. Bolshevik troops subsequently stormed the palace and successfully took control by the next day without much violence. The ministers who were hiding inside were arrested and imprisoned, and victory was thus in the hands of Lenin and the Bolsheviks.

1920 mass spectacle re-enacting the storming of the Winter Palace by Bolshevik soldiers in the October Revolution of 1917

This seemingly smooth and relatively non-violent revolution was only a prelude to another war and more suffering. With the Bolsheviks under Lenin taking over the government, a communist regime was set up to rule Russia. This did not go down well with many political groups such as the Nationalists, Imperialists and Conservatives, who held to more moderate ideologies and were more in favour of democracy and a constitutional monarchy. These different anti-communist parties teamed up and regrouped themselves to wage an all-out war against the Bolsheviks. As a result, the Russian Civil War (1917 – 1923) broke out between the Red Army (Bolshevik communists) and the White Army (anti-communists).

And it was amidst the turmoil of this war that the last of the Romanovs were murdered in cold blood under the orders of Lenin. With that, let us move on to the next part of this article.

Russian Civil War (1917 - 1923)

Murder in Cold Blood – the Execution of Tsar Nicholas II and the Romanov Family (Part 2)

2010-07-15T21:35:00.000-07:00

(Excerpt from the 2000 Russian film entitled "The Romanovs: An Imperial Family" (Романовы. Венценосная семья, Romanovy: Ventsenosnaya Sem’ya))

There was no escape, and they were trapped within the confines of the four walls around them. Even the only entrance to the room had been blocked off by a squad of professional shooters who had been specially called in for the task. Without even a chance to defend themselves properly, a rain of bullets was showered down upon them, knocking out every last sign of life out of their bodies. Such was the bloody destiny that ultimately awaited the last of the Romanovs in the wee hours of the morning of July 17, 1918, thus putting an absolute end to Russia’s centuries-old imperial lineage.

In the previous part of this article, you would have read about the events of the Russian Revolution of 1917 that led to Tsar Nicholas II’s abdication from the throne and the consequent abolishment of the Russian monarchy. The events of the Russian Revolution culminated in the establishment of a communist regime under Lenin and the Bolsheviks later that year. Although the Tsar’s family continued to live in exile after the revolutionary events, circumstances were not on their side, as the ensuing Russian Civil War soon became the final curtain for the Romanovs.

Shortly after the Tsar’s abdication on March 15, 1917, he retreated to the Alexander Palace (Александровский дворец, Aleksandrovskiĭ Dvorets) in Tsarskoye Selo (Ца́рское Село́), where he was reunited with his whole family. The entire royal family was then placed under house arrest in the palace under the orders of the newly-formed Provisional Government. Despite that, the Tsar remained calm throughout the ordeal and insisted that life should go on as usual for all his family members, including resuming lessons for his children. The family was to remain there for a few months until August 1917.

Painting of the Alexander Palace in Tsarskoye Selo

In August 1917, the Provisional Government under Prime Minister Alexander Kerensky decided to move the royal family to Tobolsk (Тобо́льск), where they lived in the mansion of the former governor of the town. This was done on the supposed basis of protecting them from the revolutions that were taking place in and near the capital. Whilst in Tobolsk, the family was allowed to live in total luxury, but things soon changed after the October Revolution and the Bolsheviks’ rise to power under Lenin. The royal family was stripped of servants and luxurious food, and life became considerably tougher under strict rationing. The Bolshevik (communist) government was by then seriously considering the possibility of putting the Tsar on trial as soon as possible.

Bird's eye view of the town of Tobolsk today

The October Revolution and the establishment of communist rule under the Bolsheviks sparked off the Russian Civil War between the Red Army (Bolshevik communists) and the White Army (anti-communists). Members of the White Army were generally more in favour of reestablishing Tsarist rule under a constitutional monarchy, in contrast to the communists’ stand of an absolute republic. Amidst the civil war, the Bolshevik government moved the Tsar, Tsarina and their daughter, the Grand Duchess Maria (Мария) (1899 – 1918) to Yekaterinburg (Екатеринбу́рг, Ekaterinburg) in April 1918. In the following month, the Tsar’s three other daughters, the Grand Duchesses Olga (Ольга, Ol’ga) (1895 – 1918), Tatiana (Татьяна, Tat’yana) (1897 – 1918) and Anastasia (Анастасия) (1901 – 1918), together with Tsarevich Alexei, were moved to be with their family as well. There were also four others who willingly chose to remain with the royal family and thus moved in with them, namely their court physician, Dr Eugene Botkin (Евге́ний Бо́ткин, Yevgéniĭ Bótkin) (1865 – 1918), the Tsarina’s maid, Anna Demidova (Анна Демидова) (1878 – 1918), the royal chef, Ivan Kharitonov (Ива́н Харито́нов) (1872 – 1918) and the royal valet, Alexei Trupp (Алексе́й Трупп) (1858 – 1918). Together, the entire royal household was moved into the Ipatiev House (Дом Ипатьева, Dom Ipat’eva) in Yekaterinburg, which was to be their final abode.

The Ipatiev House in Yekaterinburg

In spite of all the difficulties that the imperial household was forced to face under the difficult circumstances, they remained resilient and calm wherever they went. Imprisonment was tough, and all the more so because they were deprived of almost all luxuries that they have been so used to in former days. They were hardly allowed to go beyond the compounds of their residences, and they were being watched by unfriendly sentries almost wherever they were. The only joy they had was the fact that they were permitted to live out their last days on earth as a united family, having each other for support and company. They could only hope against hope that their circumstances would take a favourable turn for them so as to put an end to their misery in exile.

And indeed, they got their hope of ending their misery in the end, but not exactly how they had expected it to be……

Prior to that dreadful night, Lenin and the Bolsheviks were more in favour of bringing the Tsar to a fair trial for all the purported crimes that he had committed against the people during his reign. However, circumstances during the Russian Civil War did not really favour such a decision, as the White Army (anti-communist forces) were quickly approaching Yekaterinburg and were threatening to capture the city. It was feared that if the White Army succeeded, the Romanovs would be freed and would then provide support for their struggle against the Red Army (communists). It was also feared that as long as the Tsar or his family members survived, they might be rallied as the legitimate rulers of Russia by the White Army and the other European nations. Either way, the position of the Bolshevik communists would be in jeopardy and their dreams of establishing a monarch-free Russia would be shattered. Therefore, they were left with only one choice.

Soldiers marching off to war during the Russian Civil War

The order from Lenin and the Bolshevik government arrived on the night of July 16, 1918 to put an end to the Romanov Dynasty once and for all. The order was received by Yakov Yurovsky (Я́ков Юро́вский) (1878 – 1938), and preparations were made immediately for its execution. Sentries in and around the Ipatiev House were alerted so as not to be alarmed by the sound of gunshots in the wee hours of the following morning. The revolvers necessary for the execution were neatly prepared and those who were to handle them were brought in stealthily.

Yakov Yurovsky (Я́ков Юро́вский) (1878 – 1938)

Around midnight, the imperial family and their loyal companions (Dr Botkin, Demidova, Kharitanov and Trupp) were awakened and asked to dress up immediately under the pretext that they were about to be moved to a safer location because of trouble in the city. They did not have much time to get prepared, and only managed to slip into simple clothing and dresses. Maria and Anastasia, however, managed to put on dresses which were heavily sewn with smuggled imperial jewels, keeping them safely in the hope of being able to proudly put them on again someday in the future.

At about 1.00 a.m. in the morning, the Romanov household was brought into the basement of the Ipatiev House. Yurovsky ushered them into the cellar room, where they were told to wait for the truck that would transport them out. The soldiers accompanying Yurovsky brought in three chairs and arranged them in the middle of the room: one for Tsar Nicholas II, Tsarina Alexandra and Tsarevich Alexei respectively. The Grand Duchesses, namely Olga, Tatiana, Maria and Anastasia, together with Dr Botkin, Demidova, Kharitanov and Trupp, were then asked to arrange themselves standing around the royal couple. They were told that they were being posed for an official photograph before leaving the place.

Painting of Russia's last imperial family

Indeed, none of them sensed that anything was amiss throughout the whole time. All the members of the royal household were calm and composed, without any thought of imminent danger lurking just right before their eyes. They were all confident that safety was at hand, and they trusted every word that Yurovsky and his soldiers said. No one suspected or even thought that the sound of bullets would soon fill the air of the entire room, and that the floor on which they were standing would soon be stained crimson red.

Their calmness did not last long. Yurovsky left the room and returned shortly with 10 other men, one executioner for each of the 11 who were about to be shot. At that point, the Romanovs started to sense that something was amiss, but it was too late. They were trapped in the cellar room with no other exit except the one which was now blocked by the executioners. Escape was out of the question.

Yurovsky took out a piece of paper and read out aloud the order of execution that had been sent to him:

“Nicholas Alexandrovich, in view of the fact that your relatives are continuing their attack on Soviet Russia, the Ural Executive Committee has decided to execute you.”

The order struck the Romanovs with disbelief. The Tsar exclaimed, “What? What?” while the other members of the household stared at each other and Yurovsky in utter shock. Without a chance to respond or defend themselves, the executioners raised their weapons and released their shots immediately. Tsar Nicholas II was killed instantly as Yurovsky drove a bullet into his head at close range. Tsarina Alexandra also died instantly after receiving a shower of bullets, and so did her eldest daughter, Olga. Dr Botkin the royal physician, Kharitanov the chef and Trupp the valet dropped dead next to her. Bullets flew through the whole room, knocking Tatiana dead and heavily wounding Alexei as well. Maria and Anastasia were, however, somewhat protected from the onslaught of the bullets because of the jewels that were sewn under their dresses. So was Demidova the maid, who held a small pillow filled with gems.

Yurovsky’s orders were to make sure that every last member of the Romanov household was denied the right to live. Maria and Anastasia crouched against the wall and tried to defend themselves with their arms, but to no avail. The executioners approached them and drove a few more bullets into their heads and necks, instantly ripping life out of them. Demidova was stabbed to death with a bayonet. Alexei, who was still moaning and moving feebly, received a few more bullets from Yurovsky on his head, right behind the ear. With that, the last of the Romanovs was killed mercilessly, and the Romanov line was terminated once and for all, never again to be revived.

Illustration depicting the shooting of the last Romanov family

The cellar in which the shooting of the last Romanov family took place

At sunrise the following morning, Yurovsky ordered the bodies to be removed from the blood-stained cellar. They were to be buried in a concealed location so as to ensure that no one, not even the White Army, would be able to discover them. The bodies were transported north of Yekaterinburg and were buried in a concealed pit in a forest beside a cart track. In order to confuse the enemies in the event that the burial site was discovered, the bodies of Alexei and one of his sisters were removed from the rest and were cremated at an undisclosed location. Yurovsky thought that if the White Army succeeded in discovering the burial site, they would not be able to confirm that the bodies belonged to the imperial household, since the bodies of two out of the 11 executed were no longer there and thus, the body count would not be correct.

Purported site of burial of Russia's last imperial family after the execution

Throughout history, there have been many rumours regarding the survival of some members of the Romanov family. Such rumours, mostly revolving around Alexei and his sister Anastasia, have been repeatedly portrayed by the media and popularized by many movies and books produced until now. In fact, there have also been not few of those who came into the public limelight, claiming to be the Grand Duchess Anastasia, having survived the execution and lived in secrecy out of fear of the Communist government.

Poster of the fantasy-themed 1997 animated movie entitled Anastasia that revolves around the belief that the Grand Duchess Anastasia survived the execution

Such claims, however, have been debunked since 1991, when the bodies of 9 out of the 11 who were executed were discovered in their original burial site. In actual fact, the burial site was discovered about a decade earlier, but this knowledge was deliberately hidden because Russia at that time was still under Communist rule. With the collapse of the Soviet Union (Советский Сою, Sovetsky Soyuz) and thus Communist rule in Russia in 1991, news about this discovery subsequently surfaced and gained widespread attention. Subsequent DNA tests conducted on the bodies revealed that they belonged to the executed Romanov family and their faithful companions.

In 1998, 80 years after lying in complete desecration and desolation, the bodies were given a proper Christian state funeral by the Russian government. They were finally buried in their rightful places in the Peter and Paul Cathedral (Петропа́вловский собо́р, Petropávlovskiĭ Sobór) in Saint Petersburg, where the remains of most of the other Russian monarchs were buried as well. In 2000, all the members of the last Romanov family were canonized as passion bearers by the Russian Orthodox Church.

Peter and Paul Cathedral in Saint Petersburg, the final resting place of the last Romanov family

Tombstones marking the final resting place of Tsar Nicholas II and his family in Saint Catherine's Chapel

Nonetheless, the mystery of the two undiscovered bodies remained until it was finally solved in 2007. Two charred partial skeletons were found at a bonfire site near Yekaterinburg that appeared to match the site described in Yurovsky’s records. They belonged to a boy and a young woman, and subsequent DNA tests confirmed that they were the bodies of Alexei and one of his sisters. Whether the body of that young woman belonged to Anastasia or Maria remains disputed up to this day.

Indeed, the tragic fate that met the last of the Romanovs did not receive much sympathy back then as it does today. At a time when Russia was embroiled in a civil war under Communism, the deaths of the Romanovs were somewhat more than welcomed by many who were tired of being under monarchical rule. Even those who were assigned by Yurovsky to bury the remains of the Romanov household back then showed little respect by rummaging the clothes of the victims for precious gems and jewels. No doubt, Russia got what it wanted – to never again bow down to the headship of a monarch.

The last imperial family of Russia (From left to right) Grand Duchess Olga, Grand Duchess Maria, Tsar Nicholas II, Tsarina Alexandra, Grand Duchess Anastasia, Tsarevich Alexei and Grand Duchess Tatiana

Dr Eugene Botkin (Евге́ний Бо́ткин, Yevgéniĭ Bótkin) (1865 – 1918), the last court physician to Tsar Nicholas II's family

Anna Demidova (Анна Демидова) (1878 – 1918), Tsarina Alexandra's maid

Ivan Kharitanov (Ива́н Харито́нов) (1872 – 1918), the last royal chef

Alexei Trupp (Алексе́й Трупп) (1858 - 1918), the royal valet

“Away with the British!” – the Quit India Movement

2010-06-15T07:25:00.000-07:00

“Here is a mantra, a short one that I give you. You may imprint it on your hearts and let every breath of yours give expression to it. The mantra is: ‘Do or Die.’ We shall either free India or die in the attempt; we shall not live to see the perpetuation of our slavery.”

When the voice of the great freedom fighter Mahatma Gandhi rang throughout the park of Gowalia Tank Maidan with those words on 8 August 1942, it swept across the entire nation of India like gushing fire, awakening and uniting its people at a degree unprecedented since the beginning of time. For perhaps the first time ever in India’s long and colourful history, people all over the land joined forces and in one voice echoed Gandhi’s own words to the British loud and clear: “Nothing less than freedom.”

The Quit India Movement (Hindi: भारत छोड़ो आन्दोलन, Bhārat Chhoṛo Āndolan), initiated by the Indian National Congress under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi in 1942, was perhaps one of the greatest successes of the Indian people in forming a united front against British colonialism. It was a major movement that mobilized the entire nation as a single entity to put pressure upon the British government for immediate independence. And although some may have viewed it as a failure in several ways, the movement nonetheless gave the British a clear and concise indication – QUIT INDIA OR ELSE…

With the British declaring war against Germany in 1939 and the subsequent eruption of the Second World War, India was forcefully pulled into the war against its wishes, since it was a component of the British Empire. This angered the leadership of the Indian National Congress, as it was against all forms of war and supported peaceful means of fighting for goals under Gandhi’s satyagraha (Sanskrit: सत्याग्रह) principles of non-violent resistance. The Congress leadership condemned the British’s decision to drag India into the war without first consulting Indian leaders, but the British defended their decision by saying that waging the war was necessary to ensure world peace. The British also promised to secede more power to the Indians in return, of which Gandhi cynically reacted by stating that “The Congress has asked for bread and it has got stone.”

British soldiers at war during the Second World War

Support for the British from the Congress leadership and the Indians in general waned as the Second World War proceeded. Gandhi and the other Congress leaders were obviously displeased with India’s forced involvement in the war, and Indian cooperation with the British government deteriorated from bad to worse after the resignation of several Congress ministers in a few provinces in December 1939. The British government continued to adamantly defend their decision, while the Congress leadership under the great Mahatma persisted in showing their disapproval. All talks and negotiations came to a deadlock as both sides refused to give in to each other’s terms.

Nonetheless, amidst the raging war in Europe and several other parts around the world, the British were well aware of the pertinent need to secure Indian support and cooperation. India was Britain’s largest colony in Asia and the world, and it was a strategic commercial outpost and military bastion too precious to be lost especially in the face of Japanese militarism in Asia. By February 1942, the British had already lost Malaya (present-day West Malaysia) and Singapore into Japanese hands, and it couldn’t allow India to suffer the same fate as well.

British forces surrendering to the Japanese in Singapore after failing to defend both Singapore and Malaya from Japanese invasion

In order to mend the situation and improve relations with the Indians, the then British Prime Minister Winston Churchill (1874 – 1965) sent one of the ministers of his War Cabinet, Sir Richard Stafford Cripps (1889 – 1952) to initiate negotiations with Gandhi, the Congress leaders and Muhammad Ali Jinnah (Urdu: محمد علی حجنا) the leader of the Muslim League and later founder of Pakistan. Cripps was to encourage them to give public support for the British government and its war efforts. In return, Cripps pledged on behalf of the British government to increase Indian representation in the central government, establish a Constituent Assembly and grant India Dominion status, which would be nearly tantamount to full independence.

Mahatma Gandhi and Sir Richard Cripps sharing a light moment during the Cripps Mission

No doubt, these pledges sounded too good to be true, but they were indeed true to the word except for a single catch: they were only to be granted after the end of the Second World War. In other words, from Gandhi’s point of view at the time the pledges were made, they were only to be granted in the future, assuming that the British would emerge victorious in the War and at the same time retain India under its authority. But what worried Gandhi and the other Indian leaders more was the might of the Imperial Japanese Army that had already subdued almost all of East and Southeast Asia. The Japanese had already burned British authority in Malaya and Singapore to the ground, and they were now marching through Burma towards India.

Japanese troops crossing through Burmese villages towards India

To Gandhi and most of the Congress leaders, the British were too confident of their ability to defend India and emerge victorious in the War. The British, through Cripps, had made those pledges of self-governance with the confidence that they would still be in the position and authority over India to grant those pledges after the War. But what if the Japanese indeed proved to be mightier and ultimately annexed the entire Indian Subcontinent into its ever-expanding empire? Cooperating with the British would then spell disaster for India and its leaders, as the Japanese at that time were known to be pretty merciless towards any British sympathizers. Gandhi was in a dilemma, and he sarcastically likened Cripps’ pledges to “a post-dated check drawn on a crashing bank.”

Mahatma Gandhi and Muhammad Ali Jinnah (1876 - 1948)

Gandhi’s request to the British was clear and concise: “Nothing less than freedom”, and he wanted it immediately. He knew that the only way to save India was to ensure that it received the independence that it had long sought for without further delay. The Congress leaders, including Gandhi, did not want the British to defend their homeland against impending Japanese invasion for two main reasons.

Firstly, in the event of British defeat, the Congress leaders did not want the British forces to resort to destroying cities, industries and infrastructures in accordance with the “scorched-earth” policy as was practiced earlier on in Malaya and Singapore. (For your information, the “scorched-earth” policy, as was practiced by the British forces in Malaya and Singapore prior to their surrender to the Japanese, involved mass destruction of administrative buildings, cities and infrastructures, as well as important government documents, in order to slow down Japanese invasion and to make it more difficult for the Japanese to establish a new administration and economic structure in the region after taking over.)

The damaged Causeway connecting Johor Bahru, Malaya (Malaysia) to Singapore. It was severed and blown up by the British forces as part of the "scorched-earth" policy to slow down Japanese invasion

Secondly, Gandhi and the Congress leaders wanted to ensure that India and its leaders remained neutral in the War. To Gandhi, this was vital to show the Japanese and the world that India had neither sided nor cooperated with the British throughout the course of the War. Only then would Gandhi and the Congress leaders perhaps be able to negotiate favourable terms for independence and self-governance with the Japanese in the event that the latter succeeded in conquering India. Evidently, Gandhi had a strong premonition that India was about to fall into Japanese hands and was highly pessimistic about Britain’s chances of winning the War and retaining India.

The result of the negotiations between Cripps and the Indian leaders was utterly disappointing. Shortly after Cripps returned to Britain, Gandhi made a public call for the British to leave India peacefully or be chased out by means of non-violent resistance. His justification for such a stand was clear: “The presence of the British in India is an invitation to Japan to invade India. Their withdrawal removes the bait.” As a result of this call, the Indian National Congress met from 29 April to 1 May 1942 in Allahabad (Hindi: इलाहाबाद) and once again on 14 July 1942 in Wardha (Marathi: वर्धा) to pass the renowned ‘Quit India’ resolution demanding complete independence from the British.

The Quit India resolution received mixed response from Indian leaders. Chakravarti Rajagopalachari (Tamil: சக்ரவர்த்தி ராஜகோபாலாச்சாரி) (1878 – 1972), a prominent Congress leader from Tamil Nadu, quit the Congress out of disagreement with the resolution. Jawaharlal Nehru (Hindi: जवाहरलाल नेहरू) (1889 – 1964) and Maulana Azad (Urdu: مولان آزاد) were apprehensive of the resolution, but decided to support Gandhi’s stand to the end. Jinnah himself was also opposed to the resolution. Nevertheless, many others in the Congress were supportive of the movement.

Chakravarti Rajagopalachari (Tamil: சக்ரவர்த்தி ராஜகோபாலாச்சாரி) (1878 - 1972)

In spite of the mixed reactions that the Quit India resolution received from various quarters, support was generally widespread and strong. The Congress leadership met again on 8 August 1942 in Bombay (Mumbai, Marathi: मुंबई) to ratify the resolution and launch a nationwide campaign against the British. It was then that Mahatma Gandhi issued his renowned Quit India speech in the park of Gowalia Tank Maidan in central Bombay, urging the British to leave India immediately or be forced out of the country by mass resistance from the people. To repeat what the great Mahatma said during his inspiring speech:

“…I am not going to be satisfied with anything short of complete freedom. Maybe he (the British Viceroy of India) will propose the abolition of salt tax, the drink evil etc. But I will say, “Nothing less than freedom.” Here is a mantra, a short one that I give you. You may imprint it on your hearts and let every breath of yours give expression to it. The mantra is: ‘Do or Die.’ We shall either free India or die in the attempt; we shall not live to see the perpetuation of our slavery…”

(From left) Mahatma Gandhi, Maulana Azad and Jivatram Kripalani at the Congress' meeting in August 1942

The speech, however, did not impress the British. Just one day later, on 9 August 1942, the British government came down hard on the Congress leaders and supporters of the movement. Gandhi himself was apprehended and imprisoned in the Aga Khan Palace (Hindi: आगा खान पैलेस, Āgā Khāna Pailēsa) in Pune (Marathi: पुणे), along with his wife Kasturba Gandhi (Hindi: कस्तूरबा गाँधी) (1869 – 1944) and secretary. Other Congress leaders, such as Nehru, Azad and Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel (Gujarati: સરદાર વલ્લભભાઈ પટેલ) (1875 – 1950) also suffered the same fate and were imprisoned in the Ahmednagar Fort. The high committees of the Congress leadership were immediately outlawed and the assembly of public meetings prohibited.

Mahatma Gandhi in discussion with Sardar Patel and Maulana Azad

This turn of events did not go down well with the Indian masses. What Gandhi intended to be a peaceful non-violent civil disobedience movement against the British quickly erupted into massive violent protests throughout the whole nation. Mass demonstrations and strikes sparked throughout India in the few days following Gandhi’s imprisonment, demanding the release of the Congress leaders and independence. Government buildings, police stations, post offices and railway stations throughout the country were attacked, seized and set ablaze by the masses. Electricity supply, communication lines and railway tracks were severed, while workers held mass strikes that paralyzed much of the British economy in the subsequent months. Bombs were also thrown on the police and government buildings especially in Bombay, Madhya Pradesh (Hindi: मध्य प्रदेश) and Uttar Pradesh (Hindi: उत्तर प्रदेश). Additionally, huge numbers of students staged massive protests in places such as Bangalore (Kannada: ಬೆಂಗಳೂರು), Hyderabad (Sindhi: حيدرآباد) in Sind, Nagpur (Marathi: नागपूर) and Pune. Not one state or province in India, from the southernmost tip of the peninsula to the northern Himalayan mountains, saw peace or order throughout the course of the civil disobedience movement.

Quit India processions in Bangalore, Karnataka

Huge crowds gathering at Gowalia Tank Maidan on 9 August 1942, the day Gandhi and the other top Congress leaders were imprisoned

One of the most violent and notable uprising that took place during the Quit India movement occurred in Ballia (Hindi: बलिया), Uttar Pradesh. Mass protests and civil disobedience resulted in the overthrowing of the district administration, the breaking open of jails and the release of arrested Congress leaders. In fact, the protesters actually succeeded in establishing their own independent rule for several weeks before the British could get their hold on the district again. Similarly, Indian leaders succeeded in severely destabilizing British administrations in several cities and provinces, setting up independent parallel governments to challenge British authority.

The British did not hesitate to take drastic and draconian action against the masses. Over 100,000 people were arrested nationwide and mass fines were imposed on countless individuals. Many of those arrested, especially students, were publicly flogged in several major cities in India. During several occasions, the British also resorted to opening fire from air against protesters, resulting in the death of many, including women and children. In several less violent attempts to diffuse crowds of protesters, tear gases were employed instead.

Women taking part in processions against the British in Bombay, Maharashtra

Indeed, the Quit India movement was so large and widespread that it took the British nearly two years before they could restore order and peace in India. Official records released by the British stated a total death toll of 1028 during the Quit India movement, but Nehru estimated the death toll to be anywhere between 4000 to 10,000. The entire movement that fully ended only by early 1944 created enough pandemonium to open the eyes of the British to India’s reality. General Robert Lockhart (1893 – 1981), the general of the British Indian Army during the Second World War, was so taken aback by the course of events in India that he subsequently came to recognize the country as an “occupied and hostile country” instead of just a colony. Prime Minister Churchill himself also came to recognize that independence for India was going to be an inevitability in due time, as the Indians had made an obstinate stand that they no longer wanted the British on their land.

Due to health reasons, Gandhi was released in May 1944 before the end of the Second World War. His wife and secretary, however, had passed away while still under imprisonment, much to the sadness of the Congress leaders and the people of India. On the other hand, Patel, Azad, Nehru and the other imprisoned Congress leaders were only released about a year later, in June 1945.

The Aga Khan Palace (Hindi: आगा खान पैलेस, Āgā Khāna Pailēsa), the site of Gandhi's imprisonment after his controversial Quit India speech

The Quit India movement was initially viewed as a failure by many Congress leaders, since it took a violent course that departed from Gandhi’s principles of satyagraha and non-violent resistance. Nonetheless, it was later perceived in a more positive light in the sense that it had united the whole of India under a common purpose against British colonialism. Never before had this nation of millions seen such solidarity that brought its citizens of different religions and languages together under one roof and one goal. Indian nationalism was reinforced and Indian oneness reaffirmed. The movement soon after became a catalyst for India’s independence, as it got the British machinery working towards granting full self-governance to the people of India.

Indian stamp commemorating the Quit India movement, portraying Mahatma Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru in the Congress' August 1942 meeting in Bombay

History of Manga (Part 1) (漫画の歴史)

2010-05-28T01:07:00.000-07:00

Many of us love comic books, don’t we? I’m sure most of you reading this article are familiar with such titles as Spiderman, Iron Man, the X-Men and Captain America. OK, if you’re not really into comic books, then I’m sure you must have heard of these titles from movies instead. Regardless, these movies still have their origins in comic books.

Well, perhaps it might have been an overstatement for me to say that MANY of us love comic books. In fact, it might be more accurate for me to say that only a minority are really into comic books, most of whom are children or from younger age groups. Am I right in saying this? Well, not if you are in a country where trainloads of people, both young and old, both working and studying, can be seen having a comic book at hand and being absorbed into the depths of its contents.

And in this particular country, they call such comic books “manga.”

A normal sight in Japan - people in trains reading mangas

Yes, for fans of Japanese popular culture outside Japan, the term “manga” is no longer foreign. Alongside anime (Japanese animation), mangas have become an integral and inseparable part of Japanese popular culture fandom. In fact, many animes nowadays are actually adapted from mangas, so it is fair to say that without mangas, there would be no animes and thus, no Japanese popular culture fandom.

Anyway, for those of you who may be reading this article and are still not very familiar with what mangas are, let me explain further. Mangas are basically comics of Japanese origin, but the term may sometimes be used in a wider sense to refer to any comic that applies the distinctive Japanese style of comic art. Just like its animated counterpart, mangas today cover almost any theme and genre. Common themes covered include romance, crime and mystery, fantasy, mecha (robots) and science fiction, sports, school life and adventure. Of course, this list is not exhaustive. In fact, mangas are commonly utilized as a tool of education especially in Japan, in which subjects such as mathematics, physics and chemistry are frequently taught through mangas.

Fruits Basket (フルーツバスケット, Furūtsu Basuketto) - a shojo manga-cum-anime

While readers of mangas or comic books may only comprise a small minority in most parts of the world, it is the absolute opposite in Japan. As what someone once wrote online, manga readers come in all shapes and sizes in the Land of the Rising Sun. Just hop into a commuter train or bus anywhere in Japan and chances are that you would see someone (or many ones) being absorbed in a manga at hand. They can be as young as school-going children or as old as retirees. They can be clad in school uniforms, informal wear or even business suits. They can be male or female. Such is the popularity of mangas in this island-nation, and waves of it have reached the shores of almost every corner of the world.

Such is the popularity of mangas in the Land of the Rising Sun

So, how exactly then did mangas come into existence? If you’re a fan of mangas or Japanese popular culture, how well do you know the actual history behind this popular form of art? Did you know that one of the earliest mangas to have ever been produced dates back to almost a millennium ago? Or the fact that the mangas that we know today actually have their roots in Western comics rather than traditional Japanese art? Or the fact that mangas, just like animes, served as Japanese war propaganda during the Second World War? Read on to find out more for yourself!

Before I go on with the historical aspects of manga, let me first give you a contextual and working definition of mangas. The term “manga” (漫画) comprises two kanji, or Chinese characters, which respectively mean “lax” and “picture.” “Manga”, as one term, can be translated as “whimsical drawings,” and this term has been used for at least two centuries to describe comical drawings or images. To define what we would call a “manga,” we must first understand what “sequential art” is. This term basically refers to a story or event narrated by means of images, and often but not always texts, arranged in a sequence across a page. Manga is, therefore, a form of sequential art used to tell a vast variety of stories, particularly but not exclusively from the Japanese perspective.

A comic strip illustrating the concept of "sequential art"

The exact date or period as to when Japan produced its first manga is frequently disputed by historians and scholars. However, it is widely accepted that one of the earliest forerunners of Japanese manga are the picture scrolls produced by Toba Sojo (鳥羽僧正, Toba Sōjō) (1053 – 1140), an artist-cum-Buddhist monk who lived during the Heian Period (平安時代, Heian-jidai) (794 – 1185) of medieval Japan. Known as the Scrolls of Frolicking Animals or Choju Giga (鳥獣戯画, Chōjū Giga) in Japanese, these humorous drawings illustrate various types of animals engaging in daily human activities. These drawings, which include amongst others frogs as priests losing their gamble, mischievous rabbits wrecking mayhem and monkeys engaging in farting contests, serve to parody the lifestyles of Japan’s upper classes and priesthood of the era.

A scroll from the Choju Giga (鳥獣戯画, Chōjū Giga), depicting animals wrestling each other

These scrolls might arguably be one of the earliest mangas to have ever been produced, since they adhere to a sequential art format. Reaching as long as eighty feet per scroll and crossing from right to left, these scrolls made use of images arranged in a proper sequence across the scroll to narrate a story. There were also many other similar picture scrolls produced around Toba’s era and thereafter, some portraying religious messages and ghost stories in them and others parodying the lifestyles of humans. Most of these, however, were mainly confined to the viewership of the upper classes and priesthood at that time.

The development of ukiyo-e became the next major milestone in the history of Japanese art and manga. During the 16^th and 17^th centuries, ukiyo-e (浮世絵, lit. “Pictures of the Floating World”), a form of Japanese woodblock printing, developed and became a popular form of art. Ukiyo-e was frequently used to depict natural sceneries, historical events or everyday life during the Tokugawa Period (徳川時代, Tokugawa-jidai) (1603 – 1868), but most markedly, it was used to depict activities in the “floating world” of Yoshiwara (吉原), from which it derived its name. Yoshiwara was the red-light district and the centre of nightlife in Edo (江戸) (modern-day Tokyo) that provided escape and fantasy for rich clients by means of traditional theatres, teahouses, restaurants and high-class brothels.

An ukiyo-e painting of The Tale of Genji (源氏物語, Genji Monogatari)

Ukiyo-e, however, was not in any way directly associated with manga or sequential art during the earlier years of the Tokugawa Period. Instead, there were other forms of published drawings that resembled modern manga more during the same period. During the 18^th century, Toba-e (鳥羽絵) became popular in cities such as Osaka, Kyoto, Nagoya and Edo (Tokyo). Toba-e, named after Toba Sojo himself, were books produced via woodblock printing which depicted everyday life using humorous caricatures, just like the scrolls produced by Toba. Simultaneously, akahon (赤本, lit. “Red Book”), which were children picture books with red front covers illustrating Japanese folktales, became popular amongst the general public. Akahon, which were either woodblock printed or hand-drawn, soon came to cover a larger variety of stories, some catering more for grown-ups.

A piece of Toba-e using humorous caricatures to illustrate everyday life

From akahon, other picture books of similar formats started appearing in subsequent years. Kurohon (黒本, lit. “Black Book”) and aohon (青本, lit. “Blue Book”), which were variants of akahon, came into existence and enriched the flourishing picture book businesses during the Tokugawa Period. In the later years of the Tokugawa Period, these picture books came to be known as kibyoshi (黄表紙, kibyōshi), which were essentially yellow-backed cover books depicting contents more suited for adult viewership, such as political satire, economic issues and philosophical ideals. Since kibyoshi mainly poked fun at the government, the powerful and the rich, they were soon after banned by the Tokugawa regime.

Contents of a kibyoshi published in the later years of the Tokugawa Period

As far as ukiyo-e is concerned, only the term “manga” has anything to do with it. Ukiyo-e was, is and has never been a form of sequential art, as it is used only to portray single scenes not connected to one another. It was the renowned ukiyo-e artist, Katsushika Hokusai (葛飾北斎) (1760 – 1849) who first coined the term “manga.” Published from 1814 to 1878, the Hokusai Manga (北斎漫画) is a 15-volume collection of block-printed sketches on various subjects drawn mostly by Hokusai himself. Although Hokusai decided to call his collection of works “manga” (which, as I’ve explained earlier, can be directly translated as “whimsical drawings”), they do not refer to manga in the same way as we understand it today, as they are not a form of storytelling sequential art.

The Great Wave off Kanagawa (神奈川沖浪裏, Kanagawa Okinami-ura), one of Katsushika Hokusai's most renowned ukiyo-e paintings

An excerpt from the Hokusai Manga

Prior to 1853, the entire island-nation was under an isolationist policy that tremendously limited Japan’s contact with the outside world. The entry of foreigners, especially Westerners, was strictly regulated and monitored under this policy. This stemmed from the fact that Catholic Christianity had spread extremely rapidly throughout Japan, especially in Kyushu, during the 16^th and 17^th centuries. The Tokugawa Shogunate, realizing that most Catholic missionaries present in Japan at that time were either Portuguese or Spanish, feared that their presence and work in Japan might soon cause the country to fall into either Portuguese or Spanish hands. As a result, the Tokugawa Shogunate enacted a series of policies from 1633 to 1639 to bring the entire country into isolation.

The arrival of Commodore Matthew Calbraith Perry (1794 – 1858) in Japan and the consequent opening of Japan to the world in 1853 was a turning point for the history of manga and Japanese history in general. With the use of threat and intimidation, the American naval fleet under Commodore Perry succeeded in prying open Japan’s closed doors to the world and opening its ports for Western trade. Through a series of unequal treaties signed between the Tokugawa Shogunate and several Western powers in subsequent years, Japan eventually saw an influx of Westerners residing in the country under extraterritorial rights.

Commodore Matthew Perry (1794 - 1858)

Indeed, the influx of Westerners into Japan brought with it an influx of Western culture and ideals, which greatly influenced every aspect of Japanese life, including the comic industry. Japanese comics would thus never be the same again, as it developed in a distinct direction that mixed the best of Western comic art and traditional Japanese aesthetics. Move on to the next part of this article to find out more about how mangas developed from after Japan’s opening to the world right up to the Second World War.

Main References:

(See last part)

Part 1 – the earliest forms of manga in Japan before Japan’s opening to the world in 1853

Part 2 – the manga industry from Japan’s opening in 1853 to the Second World War

Part 3 – the manga industry after the Second World War